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PRINCETON,  N.  J. 


Purchased  by  the  Mary  Cheves  Dulles  Fund. 


Division 

Section' 


FJ208 

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THE  SOUTH  AMERICAN  SERIES 

EDITED  BY  MARTIN  HUME,  M.A. 


THE  SOUTH  AMERICAN  SERIES 

Edited  by  Martin  Hume 
Each  Volume  Demy  8vo,  cloth. 

Second  Edition 

V0L'  CHILE 

Its  History  and  Development,  Natural  Features,  Products, 
Commerce  and  Present  Conditions.  By  G.  F.  Scott 
Elliott,  M.A.,  F.R.G.S.,  Author  of  “A  Naturalist  in  Mid 
Africa.”  With  an  Introduction  by  Martin  Hume,  a Map, 
and  many  Illustrations. 

“ An  exhaustive  and  interesting  account,  not  only  of  the  turbulent 
history  of  this  country  but  of  her  present  conditions  and  seeming 
prospects." — Westminster  Gazette. 

“ Will  be  found  attractive  and  useful  reading  by  the  student  of 
history,  the  geographer,  the  naturalist,  and  last,  but  assuredly  not 
least,  the  British  merchant.” — Scotsman. 


ERU 

Its  Former  and  Present  Civilisation,  History  and  Exist- 
ing Conditions,  Topography  and  Natural  Resources, 
Commerce  and  General  Development.  By  C.  Reginald 
Enock,  F.R.G.S.,  Author  of  “ The  Andes  and  the  Amazon.” 
With  an  Introduction  by  Martin  Hume,  a Map,  and 
numerous  Illustrations. 

“ An  important  work.  . . . The  writer  possesses  a quick  eye  and 
a keen  intelligence  ; is  many-sided  in  his  interests,  and  on  certain 
subjects  speaks  as  an  expert.  The  volume  deals  fully  with  the 
development  of  the  country,  and  is  written  in  the  same  facile  and 
graphic  style  as  before.  Illustrated  by  a large  number  of  excellent 
photographs." — The  Times. 

“ A magnificent  collection  of  information  on  this  interesting 
country.  The  author’s  vivid  and  eloquent  description  invests  it  for 
us  with  some  of  the  glamour  it  possessed  for  the  Conquistadores 
of  the  sixteenth  century  ; and  on  closing  the  book  the  reader  feels 
tempted  to  set  out  at  once  for  Peru.” — Yorkshire  Obseri'er. 


VOL.  II. 


LONDON  : T.  FISHER  UNWIN 
NEW  YORK:  CHARLES  SCRIBNER'S  SONS 


MEXICO 


BY  THE  SAME  AUTHOR 


THE  ANDES  AND  THE  AMAZON 

LIFE  AND  TRAVEL  IN  PERU 

SECOND  EDITION 

WITH  A MAP  AND  NUMEROUS  ILLUSTRATIONS 

Medium  8vo.  Cloth. 

OPINIONS  OF  THE  PRESS. 

“ It  would  indeed  be  difficult  to  find  any  book  on  modern  South 
America  which  contains  a larger  amount  of  valuable  information 
for  every  class  of  reader.” — The  Times. 

“ Mr.  Enock  has  written  a delightful  book,  crowded  with 
material  of  surpassing  interest  and  value  for  the  geographer, 
the  historian,  the  naturalist,  the  engineer,  and  the  traveller,  to  say 
nothing  of  the  general  reader.” — The  Morning  Post. 

“ Singularly  graphic.  . . . Every  aspect  of  the  position  of  affairs 
in  Peru  is  touched  upon  : the  races,  the  resources  of  the  state,  the 
scenery,  and  the  possibilities  of  the  future,  are  all  brought  to  our 
notice  in  a waythat  is  quite  enchanting.” — Illustrated  London  News. 

“ A really  beautifully  produced  book,  worthy  to  take  a place  on 
the  book-shelves  of  the  connoisseur  beside  the  best  specimens  of 
the  modern  press.” — The  World’s  Work. 

LONDON:  T.  FISHER  UNWIN 
NEW  YORK:  CHARLES  SCRIBNER’S  SONS 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2016 


https://archive.org/details/mexicoitsancient00enoc_0 


A\  IDVI.I.  OF  MEXICO:  INDIAN  CARRIERS,  RUINED  CHURCH,  AND  SNOW-CLAD  LEAK  OF  ORIZABA. 


MEXICO 

ITS  ANCIENT  AND  MODERN  CIVILISATION 
HISTORY  AND  POLITICAL  CONDITIONS 
TOPOGRAPHY  AND  NATURAL  RESOURCES 
INDUSTRIES  AND  GENERAL  DEVELOPMENT 


by/ 

C.  REGINALD  KNOCK,  F.R.G.S. 

CIVIL  AND  MINING  ENGINEER 
AUTHOR  OF  “PERU”  AND  “THE  ANDES  AND  THE  AMAZON” 


WITH  AN  INTRODUCTION  BY 

MARTIN  HUME,  M.A. 


WITH  A MAP  AND  SEVENTY-FIVE  ILLUSTRATIONS 


NEW  YORK:  CHARLES  SCRIBNER’S  SONS 
LONDON:  T.  FISHER  UNWIN 


MCMIX 


(^4//  rights  reserved.) 


PREFACE 


The  purpose  of  this  work  is  to  treat  of  Mexico  as  a 
topographical  and  political  entity,  based  upon  a study 
of  the  country  from  travel  and  observation  ; a method 
such  as  has  found  favour  in  my  book  upon  Peru.  The 
method  of  viewing  a country  as  a whole,  with  its  people, 
topography,  and  general  conditions  in  natural  relation  to 
each  other,  is  one  which  commands  growing  acceptance 
in  a busy  age.  1 have  been  able  to  observe  much  of  the 
actual  life  and  character  of  Spanish-American  countries 
from  considerable  travel  therein.  Both  Mexico  and 
Peru  ever  lured  me  on  as  seeming  to  hold  for  me 
some  El  Dorado,  and  if  I have  not  reaped  gold  as  the 
Conquistadores  did,  there  are  nevertheless  other  matters 
of  satisfaction  accruing  to  the  traveller  from  his  journeys 
in  those  splendid  territories  of  mountain  and  forest. 

Mexico,  superfluous  to  say,  is  not  part  of  South 
America,  although  this  book  appears  in  this  series.  But 
it  is  part  of  that  vast  Spanish-speaking  New  World  whose 
development  holds  much  of  interest ; and  which  may 
occupy  a more  important  part  in  coming  years  than 
is  generally  thought  of  at  present. 


THE  AUTHOR. 


CONTENTS 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

INTRODUCTION  BY  MARTIN  HUME  . 

CHAPTER  I 


PAGE 

xxi 

xxv 


A FIRST  RECONNAISSANCE  . . . . I 

Romance  of  history — Two  entrance  ways — Vera  Cruz — Orizaba 
—The  Great  Plateau — Fortress  of  Ulua — Sierra  Madre — Topo- 
graphical structure — The  Gulf  coast — Tropical  region — Birds, 
animals,  and  vegetation  of  coast  zone — Tierra  calicnte — Malaria — 
Foothills — Romantic  scenery — General  configuration  of  Mexico 
— Climatic  zones — Temperate  zone — Cold  zone — The  Cordillera 
— Snow-capped  peaks — Romance  of  mining — Devout  miners — 
Subterranean  shrines — The  great  deserts — Sunset  on  the  Great 
Plateau — Coyotes  and  zopilotes — Irrigated  plantations — Railways 
— Plateau  of  Anahuac — The  cities  of  the  mesa  central — Spanish- 
American  civilisation— Romance  of  Mexican  life — Mexican  girls, 
music,  and  moonlight — The  peones  and  civilisation — American 
comparisons — Pleasing  traits  of  the  Mexicans — The  foreigner  in 
Mexico — Picturesque  mining-towns — Wealth  of  silver — Con- 
ditions of  travel — Railways — Invasions — Lerdo’s  axiom— Roads 
and  horsemen — Strong  religious  sentiment — Popocatepetl  and 
Ixtaccihuatl — Sun-god  of  Teotihuacan — City  of  Mexico — Valley 
of  Mexico — The  Sierra  Madre — Divortia  aquarian  of  the  con- 
tinent— Volcano  of  Colima — Forests  and  Ravines — Cuernavaca 
— The  trail  of  Cortes — Acapulco — Romantic  old  haciendas — 
Tropic  sunset— Unexplored  Guerrero — Perils  and  pleasures  of 
the  trail — Sunset  in  the  Pacific  Ocean. 


CHAPTER  II 

THE  DAWN  OF  MEXICO  : TOLTECS  AND  AZTECS  . . 20 

Lake  Texcoco — Valley  of  Anahuac — Seat  of  the  Aztec  civilisation 
— Snow-capped  peaks — Pyramids  of  Teotihuacan — Toltecs — The 
first  Aztecs — The  eagle,  cactus,  and  serpent — Aztec  oracle  and 
wanderings — Tenochtitlan — Prehistoric  American  civilisations — 

ix 


X 


CONTENTS 


Maya,  Incas — Quito  and  Peru — The  dawn  of  history— The  Toltec 
empire — Rise, regime,  fall — Quetzalcoatl — Otomies — Chichemecas 
— Nezahualcoyotl — Astlan — The  seven  tribes  and  their  wander- 
ings— Mexican  war-god — The  Teocallis — Human  sacrifices — 
Prehistoric  City  of  Mexico — The  Causeways — Aztec  arts,  kings, 
and  civilisation — Montezuma — Guatemoc — Impressions  of  the 
Spaniards — The  golden  age  of  Texcoco — Vandalism  of  Spanish 
archbishop — The  poet-king  and  his  religion — Temple  to  the 
Unknown  God — Aztecs  and  Incas  compared — The  Tlascalans — 
The  Otomies — Cholula — Mexican  tribes — Aztec  buildings — Pre- 
historic art — Origin  of  American  prehistoric  civilisation — Biblical 
analogies — Supposed  Asiatic  and  Egyptian  origins — Aboriginal 
theory. 


CHAPTER  III 

THE  STRANGE  CITIES  OF  EARLY  MEXICO  . 

Principal  prehistoric  monuments — Aztec  capital  of  Tenochtitlan 
— Pyramids  of  Teotihuacan — Toltec  sun-god — Pyramid  of  Cho- 
lula— Pyramids  of  Monte  Alban — Ruins  of  Mitla — Remarkable 
monoliths  and  sculpture — Beautiful  prehistoric  stone-masonry — 
Ruins  of  Palenque — Temple  of  the  Sun,  and  others — Stone  vault 
construction — Tropical  vegetation — Ruins  of  Yucatan — Maya 
temples — Architectural  skill — Temples  of  Chichen-Ytza — Bar- 
baric sculpture — Effect  of  geology  on  building — The  Aztec 
civilisation — Land  and  social  laws — Slavery — Taxes,  products, 
roads,  couriers — Analogy  with  Peru — Aztec  homes  and  industries 
— War,  human  sacrifice,  cannibalism — History,  hieroglyphics, 
picture-writing — Irrigation,  agriculture,  products — Mining,  sculp- 
ture, pottery — Currency  and  commerce — Social  system — Advent 
of  the  white  man. 


CHAPTER  IV 

CORTES  AND  THE  CONQUEST  . 

Landing  of  Cortes — Orizaba  peak — The  dawn  of  conquest — 
Discovery  of  Yucatan — Velasquez  and  Grijalva — Life  and  cha- 
racter of  Cortes — Cortes  selected  to  head  the  expedition — 
Departure  from  Cuba — Arrival  at  Yucatan — The  coast  of  Vera 
Cruz — Marina — Vera  Cruz  established — Aztec  surprise  at  guns 
and  horses — Montezuma — Dazzling  Aztec  gifts — Messages  to 
Montezuma — Hostility  of  the  Aztecs — Key  to  the  situation — The 
Cempoallas — Father  Olmedo — Religion  and  hypocrisy  of  the 
Christians — March  to  Cempoalla — Montezuma’s  tax-collectors — 
Duplicity  of  Cortes — Vacillation  of  Montezuma — Destruction  of 
Totonac  idols — Cortes  despatches  presents  to  the  King  of  Spain 


CONTENTS 


xi 


PAGE 

— Cortes  destroys  his  ships — March  towards  the  Aztec  capital — 
Scenery  upon  line  of  march — The  fortress  of  Tlascala — Brusque 
variations  of  climate — The  Tlascalans — Severe  fighting — Capitu- 
lation of  Tlascala — Faithful  allies — Messengers  from  Montezuma 
— March  to  Cholula — Massacre  of  Cholula — The  snow-capped 
volcanoes — First  sight  of  Tenochtitlan. 


CHAPTER  V 

THE  FALL  OF  THE  LAKE  CITY  . . . . 76 

The  Valley  of  Mexico — The  City  and  the  Causeways — The 
Conquistadores  enter  Mexico  City — Meeting  of  Cortes  and  Monte- 
zuma— Greeting  of  the  Aztec  emperor  to  the  Spaniards — 
Tradition  of  Quetzalcoatl — Splendid  reception — The  Teocalli — 
Spanish  duplicity — Capture  of  Montezuma — Spanish  gambling — 
News  from  Vera  Cruz — Forced  march  to  the  coast — Cortes 
defeats  Narvaez — Bad  news  from  Mexico — Back  to  the  capital — 
Alvarado’s  folly — Barbarous  acts  of  the  Spaniards — The  fight  on 
the  pyramid — Destruction  of  Aztec  idols — Death  of  Montezuma 
— Spaniards  flee  from  the  city — Frightful  struggle  on  the 
Causeway — Alvarado’s  leap — The  Noche  Triste — Battle  of  Otumba 
— Marvellous  victory — Spanish  recuperation — Cuitlahuac  and 
Guatemoc — Fresh  operations  against  the  capital — Building  of 
the  brigantines — Aztec  tenacity — Expedition  to  Cuernavaca — 
Xochimilco — Attack  upon  the  city — Struggles  and  reverses — 
Sacrifice  of  Spaniards — Desertion  of  the  Allies — Return  of  the 
Allies — Renewed  attacks — Fortitude  of  the  Aztecs — The  famous 
catapult — Sufferings  of  the  Aztecs — Final  attack — Appalling 
slaughter — Ferocious  Tlascalans — Fall  of  Mexico. 


CHAPTER  VI 

MEXICO  AND  THE  VICEROYS  . . . .98 

General  considerations — Character  of  Viceroy  rule — Spanish 
civilisation — Administration  of  Cortes — Torture  of  Guatemoc — 
Conquests  of  Guatemala  and  Honduras — Murder  of  Guatemoc 
— Fall  of  Cortes — First  viceroy  Mendoza — His  good  administra- 
tion— Misrule  of  the  Audicncias — Slavery  and  abuse  of  the 
Indians — The  Philippine  islands — Progress  under  the  Viceroys 
— Plans  for  draining  the  Valley  of  Mexico — British  buccaneers — 
Priestly  excesses — Raid  of  Agramonte — Exploration  of  California 
— Spain  and  England  at  war — Improvements  and  progress  in 
the  eighteenth  century — Waning  of  Spanish  power — Decrepitude 


CONTENTS 


xii 


of  Spain — Summary  of  Spanish  rule — Spanish  gifts  to  Mexico — 
The  rising  of  Hidalgo — Spanish  oppression  of  the  colonists — 
Oppression  by  the  colonists  of  the  Indians — Republicanism  and 
liberty — Operations  and  death  of  Hidalgo — The  revolution  of 
Morelos — Mier — The  dawn  of  Independence — The  birth  of 
Spanish-American  nations. 


CHAPTER  VII 

THE  EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  MEXICO  . . . 113 

Monarchical  regime  of  Iturbide — Great  area  of  Mexican  Empire — 
Santa  Anna — The  Holy  Alliance — Execution  of  Iturbide — The 
Monroe  doctrine  — British  friendship  — The  United  States — 
Masonic  institutions — Political  parties — Expulsion  of  Spaniards — 
Revolution  and  crime — Clerical  antagonism— Foreign  complica- 
tions— The  “ pie-war  ” — The  Texan  war — The  slavery  question 
— Mexican  valour — American  invasion  of  Mexico — Fall  of  Mexico 
— Treaty  of  Guadalupe — Cession  of  California — Gold  in  Cali- 
fornia— Benito  Juarez  appears — Conservatives  and  Liberals — 
Massacre  of  Tacubaya — The  Reform  laws — Disestablishment  of 
the  Church— Dishonest  Mexican  finance — Advent  of  Maximilian 
— The  English,  Spanish,  and  French  expedition — Perfidy  of  the 
French— Capture  of  Mexico  City  by  the  French— Crowning  of 
Maximilian — Porfirio  Diaz — Rule  of  Maximilian — Fall  of  his 
empire — Death  of  Maximilian — The  tragedy  of  Queretaro — Diaz 
takes  Mexico  City — Presidency  of  Juarez — Lerdo — Career  and 
character  of  Diaz — First  railways  built — Successful  administra- 
tion of  Diaz — Political  stability — Forward  policy. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

PHYSICAL  CONDITIONS  : MOUNTAINS,  TABLELANDS,  AND 

FLORA  AND  FAUNA  .....  134 

Geographical  conditions — Tehuantepec — Y ucatan — Boundaries 
and  area — Population — Vera  Cruz — Elevations  above  sea-level — 
Latitude — General  topography — The  Great  Plateau — The  Sierra 
Madres — The  Mexican  Andes — General  structure — The  coasts — 
Highest  peaks — Snow-cap  and  volcanoes — Geological  formation 
— Geological  scenery — Hydrographic  systems — Rivers — Naviga- 
tion— Water-power — Lakes — Climate  and  temperatures — The 
three  climatic  zones — Rainfall— Snowfall — Flora  and  fauna — 

Soil — Singular  cactus  forms — The  desert  flora — The  tropical 
flora — Forest  regions — Wild  animals — Serpents,  monkeys,  and 
felidae — Sporting  conditions — Birds. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  IX 

PAGE 

THE  MEXICAN  PEOPLE  .....  154 

Ethnic  conditions — Spanish,  Mestizos,  Indians — Colour-line — 
Foreign  element — The  p cones — Land  tenure  — The  Spanish 
people — The  native  tribes — The  Apaches — The  Mexican  consti- 
tution— Class  distinctions — Mexican  upper  class — Courtesy  and 
hospitality — Quixotism  of  the  Mexicans— Idealism  and  elo- 
quence— General  characteristics — Ideas  of  progress — American 
anomalies — Haciendas — Sport — Military  distinctions — Compari- 
son with  Anglo-Saxons — Republicanism— Language — Life  in 
the  cities — Warlike  instincts — The  women  of  Mexico — Mexican 
youths — Religious  observance — Romantic  Mexican  damsels — 

The  bull-fights. 


CHAPTER  X 

THE  CITIES  AND  INSTITUTIONS  OF  MEXICO  . . 178 

Character  of  Mexican  cities — Value  of  Mexican  civilisation — 
Types  of  Mexican  architecture — Mexican  homes  and  buildings 
— The  Plaza — Social  relations  of  classes — The  City  of  Mexico — 
Valley  of  Mexico — Latitude,  elevation,  and  temperature — Build- 
ings— Bird’s-eye  view — The  lakes — Drainage  works — Viga  canal 
and  floating  gardens — General  description — The  cathedral — Art 
treasures — Religious  orders — Chapultepec — Pasco  de  la  Reforma 
— The  President — Description  of  a bull-fight — Country  homes 
and  suburbs — Colleges,  clubs,  literary  institutions — Churches 
and  public  buildings — Army  and  Navy — Cost  of  living — Police 
— Lighting  and  tramways — Canadian  enterprise — British  com- 
mercial relations — The  American — United  States  influence — A 
general  impression  of  Mexico. 


CHAPTER  XI 

MEXICAN  LIFE  AND  TRAVEL  ....  207 

Travel  and  description  — Mexican  cities — Guadalajara — Lake 
Chapala — Falls  of  Juanacatlan — The  Pacific  slope — Colima— 
Puebla — Cities  of  the  Great  Plateau — Guanajuato — Chihuahua 
— The  Apaches — The  peoncs — Comparison  with  Americans — 

Peon  labour  system — Mode  of  living — Houses  of  the  peon  class 
— Diet — Tortillas  and  frijoles — Chilli — Pulque — Habits  of  the 
peon  class — Their  religion — The  wayside  crosses  and  their 
tragedies  — Ruthless  political  executions  — The  fallen  cross — 
Similarity  to  Bible  scenes — Peon  superstitions — The  ignis  fatuus, 
or  relacion — Caves  and  buried  treasure — Prehistoric  Mexican 
religion — The  Teocallis — Comparison  with  modern  religious 
systems — Philosophical  considerations. 


XIV 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  XII 

PAGE 

MEXICAN  life  and  travel  ( continued ) . . . 230 

Anthropogeographical  conditions  — The  Great  Plateau  — The 
tropical  belt — Primitive  villages — Incidents  of  travel  on  the 
plateau — Lack  of  water — Hydrographic  conditions — Venomous 
vermin — Travel  by  roads  and  diligencias — A journey  with  a 
priest — Courtesy  of  the  peon  class — The  curse  of  alcohol — The 
dress  of  the  working  classes— The  women  of  the  peon  class  — 
Dexterity  of  the  natives — The  bull-fights — A narrow  escape — 
Mexican  horse  equipment — The  vaqnero  and  the  lasso — Native 
sports — A challenge  to  a duel — Foreigners  in  Mexico — Un- 
explored Guerrero — Sporting  conditions — Camp  life — A day’s 
hunting. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

MINERAL  WEALTH.  ROMANCE  AND  ACTUALITY  . . 255 

Forced  labour  in  the  mines — Silver  and  bloodshed — History  of 
discovery — Guanajuato — the  veta  Madre — Spanish  methods — 
Durango — Zacatecas — Pachuca— The  patio  process — Quicksilver 
from  Peru — Cornish  miners’  graves — Aztec  mining — Spanish 
advent — Old  mining  methods — Romance  of  mining — The  Cerro 
de  Mercado — Guanajuato  and  Hidalgo — Real  del  Monte — 
Religion  and  mining — Silver  and  churches — Subterranean  altars 
— Mining  and  the  nobility — Spanish  mining  school— Modern 
conditions — The  mineral-bearing  zone — Distribution  of  minerals 
geographically — Silver — The  patio  process — Gold-mining  and 
production — El  Oro  and  other  districts — Copper — Other  minerals 
— General  mineral  production — Mining  claims  and  laws. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

NATURAL  RESOURCES,  AGRICULTURE,  GENERAL  CONDITIONS  282 

Principal  cultivated  products — Timber — The  three  climatic  zones 
— General  agricultural  conditions — Waste  of  forests — Irrigation 
— Region  of  the  river  Nazas — Canal-making — Cotton  and  sugar- 
cane— Profitable  agriculture  — Mexican  country-houses — Fruit 
gardens — Food  products,  cereals,  and  fibrous  plants — Pulque 
production — India-rubber  and  guayulc — List  of  agricultural  pro- 
ducts and  values — Fruit  culture  and  values — Forestry  and  land 
— Colonisation — American  land-sharks — Conditions  of  labour — 
Asiatics — Geographical  distribution  of  products — The  States  of 
the  Pacific  slope — Sonora — Lower  California — Sinaloa — Tepic 
— Jalisco — Colima — Michoacan — Guerreo — Oaxaca — Chiapas. 


CONTENTS 


xv 


CHAPTER  XV 

PAGE 

NATURAL  RESOURCES,  AGRICULTURE,  GENERAL  CONDITIONS 

(i continued)  ......  308 

Central  and  Atlantic  States — Chihuahua  and  the  Rio  Grande — 
Mining,  forests,  railways — Coahuila  and  its  resources — Nuevo 
Leon  and  its  conditions — Iron,  coal,  railways,  textile  industries 
— Durango  and  its  great  plains  and  mountain  peaks — Aguas- 
calientes — Zacatecas  and  its  mineral  wealth — San  Luis  Potosi 
and  its  industries — Guanajuato,  Queretaro  and  Hidalgo,  and 
their  diversified  resources — Mexico  and  its  mountains  and  plains 
— Tlaxcala — Morelos  and  its  sugar-cane  industry — The  rich 
State  of  Puebla — Tamaulipas,  a littoral  state — The  historic  State 
of  Vera  Cruz,  its  resources,  towns,  and  harbour — Campeche  and 
the  peninsula  of  Yucatan. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

MEXICAN  FINANCE,  INDUSTRIES,  AND  RAILWAYS  . . 328 

Financial  rise  of  Mexico — Tendencies  toward  restriction  against 
foreigners — National  control  of  railways — Successful  financial 
administration — Favourable  budgets — Good  trade  conditions — 
Foreign  liabilities — Character  of  exports  and  imports — Com- 
merce with  foreign  nations — Banks  and  currency — Principal 
industries  — Manufacturing  conditions  — Labour,  water-power, 
and  electric  installations — Textile  industry,  tobacco,  iron  and 
steel,  paper,  breweries,  etc. — Railways — The  Mexican  railway 
— The  Mexican  Central  railway — The  National  Railroad — The 
Interoceanic  — Government  consolidation  — The  Tehuantepec 
railway — Port  of  Salina  Cruz— Other  railway  systems. 


CHAPTER  XVII 


GENERAL  CONCLUSIONS  .....  350 

Mexico’s  unique  conditions — Her  future — Asiatic  immigrants — 
Fostering  of  the  native  race— Encouraging  of  immigration — The 
white  man  in  the  American  tropics — Future  of  Mexican  manu- 
factures— The  Pan-American  Congress — Pan-American  railway 
— Mexico  and  Spain — The  Monroe  doctrine — Mexico,  Europe, 
and  the  United  States — Promising  future  of  Mexico. 


INDEX 


• 357 





LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


AN  IDYLL  OF  MEXICO  : INDIAN  CARRIERS,  RUINED  CHURCH,  AND 

snow-clad  peak  of  Orizaba  . . . Frontispiece 


FACING  PAGE 

THE  ATLANTIC  SLOPE  : TUNNEL  AND  BRIDGE  OF  THE  INFIERNILLO 

CANON  ON  THE  MEXICAN  RAILWAY,  IN  THE  STATE  OF  VERA  CRUZ  . 4 

THE  GREAT  PLATEAU  : NIGHTFALL  IN  THE  DESERT  . . -7 

ON  THE  GREAT  PLATEAU  : VIEW  OF  THE  CITY  OF  DURANGO  . . 9 

ORIZABA,  CAPPED  WITH  PERPETUAL  SNOW  ; VIEW  ON  THE  MEXICAN 

RAILWAY  AT  CORDOBA  . . . . . ’14 

PINE-CLAD  HILLS  FORMING  THE  RIM  OF  THE  VALLEY  OF  MEXICO, 

8,000  FEET  ELEVATION  ABOVE  SEA-LEVEL  . . . . l6 

TYPICAL  VILLAGE  OF  THE  PACIFIC  COAST  ZONE,  STATE  OF  COLIMA  . l8 

THE  FINDING  OF  THE  SITE  FOR  THE  PREHISTORIC  CITY  OF  MEXICO 

BY  THE  FIRST  AZTECS  . . . . . .21 

( From  the  fainting  in  Mexico.) 

PREHISTORIC  MEXICO  : TOLTEC  PYRAMID  OR  TEOCALLI  OF  THE  SUN 

AT  SAN  JUAN  TEOTIHUACAN  . . . . . . 24 

( Exploration  and  restoration  work  being  carried  on.) 

THE  VALLEY  OF  MEXICO;  VIEW  ON  LAKE  TEXCOCO  ; THE  MODERN 

CITY  OF  MEXICO  IN  THE  DISTANCE  . . . . .26 

THE  LAND  OF  THE  AZTEC  CONQUESTS  : MAIZE  FIELDS  NEAR  ESPERANZA, 

STATE  OF  PUEBLA  . . . . . . . 31 

PREHISTORIC  MEXICO  : RUINS  OF  EL  FOLOC  AT  CHICHEN-YTZA, 

YUCATAN  . . . . . . . .35 

PREHISTORIC  MEXICO  : THE  PYRAMID  OF  THE  SUN  AT  TEOTIHUACAN 
IN  THE  VALLEY  OF  MEXICO,  SEEN  FROM  THE  PYRAMID  OF  THE 
MOON  . . . . . . . . .38 

X * xvii 


1 


xviii  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

• FACING  PAGE 

PREHISTORIC  MEXICO  : RUINS  OF  MIT  LA  ; FACADE  OF  THE  HALL  OF 

THE  COLUMNS  . . . . . . . -41 

(The  steps  have  been  " restored  ” by  the  photographer .) 

PREHISTORIC  MEXICO  : RUINS  OF  MITLA  ; HALL  OF  THE  MONOLITHS 

OR  COLUMNS  . . . . . . . .43 

PREHISTORIC  MEXICO  : RUINS  OF  MITLA  ; THE  HALL  OF  THE  GRECQUES  48 

PREHISTORIC  MEXICO  : RUINS  OF  TEMPLE  AT  CHICHEN-YTZA,  IN 

YUCATAN  . . . . . . . .53 

PREHISTORIC  MEXICO:  RUINS  OF  “THE  PALACE”  AT  CHICHEN-YTZA 

IN  YUCATAN  . . . . . . . . 6l 

THE  LAND  OF  THE  CONQUEST  : STATE  OF  VERA  CRUZ  ; VIEW  ON  THE 
MEXICAN  RAILWAY  ; THE  TOWN  OF  MALTRATA  IS  SEEN 
THOUSANDS  OF  FEET  BELOW  . . . . . .68 

THE  LAND  OF  THE  CONQUEST  : A VALLEY  IN  THE  STATE  OF  VERA 

CRUZ,  ON  THE  LINE  OF  THE  MEXICAN  RAILWAY  . . -74 

THE  LAKES  OF  THE  VALLEY  OF  MEXICO  AT  THE  TIME  OF  THE 
CONQUEST,  SHOWING  THE  CAUSEWAYS  TO  THE  AZTEC  ISLAND- 
CITY  OF  TENOCHTITLAN  . . . . . . 76 

(From  Prescott's  " Conquest  of  Mexico.") 

THE  CONQUEST  OF  MEXICO  : CORTES  AT  THE  BATTLE  OF  OTUMBA  . 87 

( From  the  painting  by  Ramirez.) 

GUANAJUATO,  AS  SEEN  FROM  THE  HILLS  : THE  HISTORIC  TREASURE- 

HOUSE  OF  MEXICO  .......  IO4 

STATUE  OF  HIDALGO  AT  MONTERREY  . . . . . 108 

THE  CASTLE  OF  CHAPULTEPEC  . . . . . .121 

CITY  OF  OAXACA  : SPANISH-COLONIAL  ARCHITECTURE  ; THE  PORTALES 

OF  THE  MUNICIPAL  PALACE  AND  PLAZA  ....  127 

THE  PRESIDENT  OF  MEXICO,  GENERAL  PORFIRIO  DIAZ  . . . I32 

MEXICO’S  ARTIFICIAL  HARBOURS  ON  THE  ATLANTIC  : THE  NEW  PORT 

WORKS  AT  VERA  CRUZ,  A SOLID  AND  COSTLY  ENTERPRISE  . I36 

ASCENDING  THE  MEXICAN  CORDILLERA,  OR  EASTERN  SIERRA  MADRE  : 

THE  RAILWAY  IS  SEEN  IN  THE  VALLEY  FAR  BELOW  . 138 


THE  PEAK  OF  ORIZABA  ; PI.AZA  OF  THE  CITY  OF  CORDOVA 


. I4O 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


xix 


FACING  PAGE 

THE  FALLS  OF  JUANACATLAN  : THE  NIAGARA  OF  MEXICO  . . I44 

THE  PACIFIC  COAST  ZONE  : GENERAL  VIEW  OF  THE  CITY  AND 

ENVIRONS  OF  COLIMA  .......  147 

A-  RARE  OCCURRENCE  : SNOWFALL  IN  A MEXICAN  TOWN  ; VIEW  OF 

THE  PLAZA  OF  LERDO,  ON  THE  GREAT  PLATEAU  . . . 149 

A ROAD  IN  THE  TEMPERATE  ZONE,  WITH  PALMS  AND  VEGETATION  . 151 

VEGETATION  IN  THE  TROPICAL  FORESTS  . . . . .153 

THE  MEXICAN  PEONES  : STREET  SCENE  AT  CORDOVA  . . . l6o 

TYPES  OF  MEXICANS  OF  THE  UPPER  CLASS  : AN  ARCHBISHOP  ; A 
FAMOUS  GENERAL  AND  MINISTER  OF  PUBLIC  WORKS  ; A FAMOUS 
MINISTER  OF  FINANCE,  SENOR  LIMANTOUR  ; A STATE  GOVERNOR  . 164 

MEXICAN  LIFE  : THE  CATHEDRAL  AND  THE  PENITENTIARY,  CITY  OF 

PUEBLA  . . . . . . . .166 

THE  FAMOUS  MEXICAN  “ RURALES,”  OR  MEXICAN  MOUNTED  POLICE  . I72 

SPANISH-COLONIAL  CHURCH  ARCHITECTURE  : A TYPICAL  MEXICAN 

TEMPLE  . . . . . . . .176 

SPANISH-COLONIAL  ARCHITECTURE  : THE  PORTALES  OF  CHOLULA  . 180 

A PUBLIC  GARDEN  IN  TROPICAL  MEXICO  : VIEW  AT  COLIMA  . . 184 

THE  VALLEY  OF  MEXICO  : THE  GREAT  DRAINAGE  CANAL  . . l88 

THE  CATHEDRAL  OF  THE  CITY  OF  MEXICO  . . . . I9I 

BULL-FIGHT  IN  THE  CITY  OF  MEXICO,  SHOWING  THE  SPECTATORS 

OF  THE  “SOL,”  THE  PICADORES,  AND  THE  ENTERING  BULL  . I94 

MEXICAN  STREET  SCENE  : A PULQUE  SHOP  WITH  ARTISTICALLY- 

PAINTED  EXTERIOR  .......  198 

MEXICAN  ARTILLERY  : A WAYSIDE  ENCAMPMENT  . . . 202 

CITY  OF  GUADALAJARA  : INTERIOR  OF  THE  CATHEDRAL  . . 208 

A TOBACCO-PRODUCING  HACIENDA  : STATE  OF  VERA  CRUZ  . . 213 

MEXICAN  PEON  LIFE  : TYPICAL  VILLAGE  MARKET-PLACE  . . 21$ 

THE  PACIFIC  COAST  ZONE  : COCOA-NUT  PALMS  AT  COLIMA  . . 230 

LIFE  AND  TRAVEL  IN  MEXICO  : MULES,  PEON,  AND  CACTUS  . 235 


XX 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


FACING  PAGE 


NATIVE  WOMEN  OF  TEHUANTEPEC  : ORDINARY  DRESS  AND  CHURCH- 
GOING COSTUMES  .......  24O 

THE  PACIFIC  COAST  ZONE  : THE  PLAZA  AND  ENVIRONS  OF  THE  CITY 

OF  COLIMA  ........  302 

MEXICAN  ARTIFICIAL  HARBOURS  ON  THE  PACIFIC  COAST  : THE  NEW 
PORT  WORKS  OF  SAUNA  CRUZ,  TERMINUS  OF  THE  TEHUANTEPEC 
RAILWAY  ........  306 

GENERAL  VIEW  OF  THE  CITY  OF  MONTERREY,  STATE  OF  NUEVO 

LEON,  UPON  THE  GREAT  PLATEAU  . . . . . 3II 

TYPICAL  SIDE  STREET  IN  MEXICAN  VILLAGE  : THE  TOWN  OF  AMECA 

AND  CLOUD-EFFECT  ON  POPOCATEPETL  . . . -319 

STATE  OF  VERA  CRUZ  : THE  BARRANCA  OR  RAVINE  OF  MITLAC  ; VIEW 

ON  THE  MEXICAN  RAILWAY  . . ...  322 

( Far  below  in  the  valley  is  seen  the  bridge  depicted  at  p.  340.) 

VERA  CRUZ  : SHIPPING  IN  THE  NEW  HARBOUR  ....  324 

BRITISH  ENGINEERING  WORK  IN  MEXICO  : BUILDING  A BREAKWATER  . 336 

THE  MITLAC  RAVINE  : VIEW  ON  THE  MEXICAN  RAILWAY  . . 34O 

BRIDGES  OVER  THE  ATOYAC  RIVER  : MEXICAN  RAILWAY  . 342 

THE  SEAPORT  OF  VERA  CRUZ  ......  344 

NEW  PORT  OF  SALINA  CRUZ,  ON  THE  PACIFIC  : THE  GREAT  DRY  DOCK  346 
(See  also  page  306.) 


The  Author  is  indebted  for  some  of  the  photographs  reproduced  in  this  book 
to  The  Mexican  Financial  Agency,  Sehor  Camacho ; The  Mexican  Information 
Bureau,  Sehor  Barriga  ; The  Mexican  Vera  Cruz  Railway  Company,  Ltd.  ; Messrs. 
S.  Pearson  and  Sons,  Ltd. ; The  London  Bank  of  Mexico  and  South  America,  Ltd.  ; 
Arthur  H.  Enock,  Esq.;  “ Modern  Mexico" ; “ Mexico  at  Chicago,"  Sehor  Manuel 
Caballero;  Holmes:  Ancient  Cities  of  Mexico  ; and  others. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


HISTORY 

The  history  of  Mexico  at  the  time  of  the  Conquest  rests  upon 
an  accurate  basis  ; the  five  letters  of  Cortes  to  the  Spanish  Emperor, 
Carlos  V.  These  have  been  recently  retranslated  into,  and  pub- 
lished in,  English  in  two  excellent  volumes  : 

The  Letters  of  Cortes  to  Charles  V.  F.  C.  MacNutt.  G.  P. 

Putnam’s  Sons.  London.  1908. 

The  most  famous  book  on  the  Conquest  is  that  of  Prescott,  the 
American  historian,  and  this  never  loses  its  charm,  although  to  the 
traveller  who  knows  the  country  it  may,  at  times,  seem  somewhat 
highly  drawn. 

Prescott’s  Conquest  of  Mexico.  3 vols.  London.  1845. 

The  writers  which,  after  Cortes,  were  the  participators  in  the 
Conquest  or  contemporary  therewith,  and  upon  whose  writings 
all  other  accounts  are  based,  are  those  of  : 

Bernal  Diaz,  Author  of  the  Verdadera  Historia  de  la  Conquista. 
1858. 

Ixtlilochitl,  Aztec  historian. 

Other  famous  contemporary  writers  whose  works  also  furnish 
material  for  historians  were  : 

Bartolome  de  las  Casas,  Francisco  Lopez  de  Gomara,  Gonzalo 
Oviedo  y Valdez,  Bernardino  de  Sahagun,  Motolinia,  Peter 
Martyr,  Antonio  de  Herrera.  The  works  of  all  these  writers 
are  extant,  principally  in  Spanish,  and  they  were  written  in 
the  sixteenth  century. 

In  the  seventeenth  century  Juan  de  Torquemada  wrote,  and  in 
the  nineteenth  numerous  works  appeared  upon  Mexico.  Among 
these  may  be  mentioned  those  of  Manuel  Orozco  y Berra,  Manuel 

xxi 


XXII 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


Icazbalceta  Raminez,  all  modern  Mexicans.  Other  authors, 
whether  of  historical  or  other  books  and  at  varying  epochs,  are  : 

Clavigero,  Duran,  Tezozomoc,  Camargo,  Siguenza,  Pizarro, 
Acosta,  Gage,  Lorenzana,  Olarte,  Vetancourt,  Solis,  Cavo, 
Landa,  Robertson,  Irving,  Humboldt,  Helps,  Bancroft, 
Kingsborough. 

Archaeological  and  Ethnological  works  are  represented  by  the 
following  : 

Bancroft,  Native  Races  of  the  Pacific  States.  5 vols.  New 
York.  1874-6. 

Bandelier,  The  Art  of  War  among  the  Ancient  Mexicans. 

„ Distribution  and  Land  Tenure. 

„ Social  Organisation. 

„ Archaeological  Tour. 

„ Indians  of  the  South-west,  U.S. 

Batres,  Cuadro  Arquelogico  de  la  Republica  Mexicana ; and 
other  works,  including  Teotihuacan. 

Blake,  Catalogue  of  Archaeological  Collection  of  the  Museum 
of  Mexico,  &c. 

Brinton,  The  American  Race. 

„ Ancient  Phonetic  Alphabets  of  Yucatan,  &c. 

Chavers,  Antigiiedades  Mexicanas. 

„ Mexico  a traves  de  los  siglos. 

Charnay,  Ancient  Cities  of  the  New  World. 

Garcia  Cubas,  Cuadro  Geografico,  &c. 

Holmes,  Archaeological  Studies  among  the  Ancient  Cities  of 
Mexico. 

Maudsley,  Biologia  Centralia-Americana. 

Kingsborough,  famous  work  on  Mexican  Antiquities,  &c. 
Penafiel,  Monumentos  del  arte  Mexicano  Antiguo.  Berlin.  1890. 
Payne,  History  of  the  New  World.  Oxford.  1899. 

Starr,  Maya  Writing,  &c.  Chicago.  1895. 

And  many  other  pamphlets  and  books  in  English,  Spanish, 
French,  and  German. 

For  a fuller  list  of  these,  see  the  excellent  volume  on 
Mexico  of  the  International  Bureau  of  the  American 
Republics.  Washington.  1904. 

Of  books  on  mining  an  excellent  volume  for  reference  is  : 

South  worth’s  Mines  of  Mexico. 

Of  mining  and  natural  resources  generally,  a large  complete 
work  has  been  issued  in  English,  Spanish,  and  French,  entitled  : 

El  Florecimiento  de  Mexico.  Mexico.  1906. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


xxm 


This  work  is  published  in  Mexico,  written  by  various  authors, 
under  the  patronage  of  the  Government.  It  is  a valuable  book 
of  reference,  but  somewhat  prolix,  and  the  type  is  small  and  the 
volume  unwieldy.  After  the  manner  of  books  issued  in  Spanish- 
American  countries,  too  much  space  is  taken  up  with  adulations  of 
public  men.  There  are  no  less  than  four  full-page  portraits  of 
President  Diaz  in  it. 

Other  general  works  are  : 

Mexico  and  the  United  States.  Abbott.  New  York.  1869. 
Guia  General  de  la  Republicas  Mexicana.  Mexico.  1899. 
Barrett,  Standard  Guide  to  Mexico.  Mexico.  1900. 

Baedeker,  The  United  States  and  Mexico.  Leipzig.  1899. 
Bancroft,  A Popular  History  of  the  Mexican  People.  London. 
1887. 

Bancroft,  Resources  and  Development  of  Mexico.  San 
Francisco.  1893. 

Baianconi,  Le  Mexique.  Paris.  1899. 

Brocklehurst,  Mexico  To-day.  London.  1883. 

Chevalier,  Le  Mexique  Ancien  et  Moderne.  Paris.  1886. 
Congling,  Mexico  and  the  Mexicans.  New  York.  1883. 

Garcia,  Mexico,  &c.  Mexico.  1893. 

Lummis,  The  Awakening  of  a Nation.  New  York.  1893. 

Ober,  Travels  in  Mexico.  Boston.  1884. 

Martin,  Mexico  of  the  Twentieth  Century.  London.  1908. 
Gadow,  Travels  in  Southern  Mexico.  London.  1908. 

Tweedie,  Mexico  as  I Saw  It.  London.  190  ? 

Tweedie.  Porfirio  Diaz.  London.  1905. 

A.  H.  Noll.  A Short  History  of  Mexico.  Chicago.  1903. 
Romero,  Mexico  and  the  United  States.  New  York.  1898. 
Statesman’s  Year-book.  London. 

Camp  Fires  on  Desert  and  Lava.  Hornaday.  London.  1909. 
And  numerous  others  in  French,  German,  and  English, 
including  various  guide-books  and  pamphlets,  scientific 
and  otherwise. 

The  Mexican  Year-book,  London,  1908,  is  published  by 
McCorquodale  & Co.  The  work  is  written  under  the 
auspices  of  the  Mexican  Government.  It  is  full  of  statistics 
and  information,  and  forms  a very  useful  work  of  reference. 
Modern  Mexico,  a monthly  illustrated  paper  of  high-class, 
issued  in  Mexico  and  St.  Louis. 

The  Mexican  Herald,  a daily  paper  published  in  English  in 
Mexico,  is  an  excellent  journal  of  current  events. 


INTRODUCTION 


“ From  what  I have  seen  and  heard  concerning  the 
similarity  between  this  country  and  Spain,  its  fertility,  its 
extent,  its  climate,  and  in  many  other  features  of  it,  it 
seemed  to  me  that  the  most  suitable  name  for  this  country 
would  be  New  Spain,  and  thus,  in  the  name  of  your 
Majesty,  I have  christened  it.  I humbly  supplicate  your 
Majesty  to  approve  of  this  and  order  that  it  be  so  called.” 
Thus  wrote  Hernan  Cortes,  the  greatest  natural  leader 
of  men  since  Julius  Caesar,  to  the  sovereign  whom  he 
endowed,  as  he  subsequently  told  him  bitterly,  with 
provinces  more  numerous  than  the  cities  he  had  inherited 
from  his  forefathers.  From  the  first  appearance  of  the 
Spaniards  upon  the  vast  elevated  plateau  upon  which 
the  Aztec  empire  stood  the  invaders  were  struck  by  its 
resemblance  in  climate  and  natural  products  to  their 
European  homeland.  In  his  first  letter  to  the  Emperor 
Cortes  wrote  : “ The  sea  coast  is  low,  with  many  sand- 
hills. . . . The  country  beyond  these  sandhills  is  level 
with  many  fertile  plains,  in  which  are  such  beautiful 
river  banks  that  in  all  Spain  there  can  be  found  no 
better.  These  are  as  grateful  to  the  view  as  they  are 
productive  in  everything  sown  in  them,  and  very  orderly 
and  well  kept  with  roads  and  convenience  for  pasturing 
all  sorts  of  cattle.  There  is  every  kind  of  game  in  this 
country,  and  animals  and  birds  such  as  are  familiar  to  us 
at  home.  ...  So  that  there  is  no  difference  between  this 
country  and  Spain  as  regards  birds  and  animals.  . . . 
According  to  our  judgment  it  is  credible  that  there  is 
everything  in  this  country  which  existed  in  that  from 
whence  Solomon  is  said  to  have  brought  the  gold  for 
the  Temple.” 

Here,  for  the  first  time,  the  Spanish  explorers  in  their 

XXV 


XXVI 


INTRODUCTION 


wanderings  had  come  across  an  organised  nation  with  an 
advanced  civilisation  and  polity  of  its  own.  The  gentle 
savages  they  had  encountered  in  the  tropical  islands  and 
the  mainland  of  the  isthmus  had  offered  little  or  no 
resistance  to  the  white  men  or  to  their  uncomprehended 
God.  The  little  kinglets  of  Hispanola,  of  Cuba,  and  of 
Darien,  divided,  unsophisticated,  and  wonder-stricken, 
with  their  peoples  bent  their  necks  to  the  yoke  and  their 
backs  to  the  lash  almost  without  a struggle.  Their  moist 
tropical  lands,  near  the  coasts,  were  enervating,  and  no 
united  organisation  for  defence  against  the  enslaving 
intruders  was  possible  to  them.  But  here  in  the  land 
of  the  Aztec  federation  three  potent  states,  with  vast 
dependencies  from  which  countless  hordes  of  warriors 
might  be  drawn,  were  ready  to  stand  shoulder  to  shoulder 
and  resist  the  claims  of  the  white  demi-gods,  mounted  on 
strange  beasts,  who  came  upon  giant  sea-birds  from  the 
unknown,  beyond  the  waste  of  waters.  But  the  fatal 
prophecy  of  the  coming  of  the  avenging  white  God 
Quetzalcoatl  to  destroy  the  Aztec  power  paralysed  the 
arm  and  brain  of  Montezuma,  and  rendered  him,  and 
finally  his  people,  a prey  to  the  diplomacy,  the  daring, 
and  the  valour  of  Cortes,  aided  by  the  dissentient  tribes 
he  enlisted  under  his  banner. 

The  vast  amphibious  city  of  Tenochtitlan,  when  at 
length  the  Conquerors  reached  it,  confirmed  the  impression 
that  the  land  of  which  it  was  the  capital  was  another 
wider  and  richer  Spain.  Its  teeming  markets,  “one 
square  twice  as  large  as  that  of  Salamanca,  all  surrounded 
by  arcades,  where  there  are  daily  more  than  sixty  thousand 
souls  buying  and  selling”  ; the  abundance  of  food  and 
articles  of  advanced  comfort  and  luxury,  “ the  cherries 
and  plums  like  those  of  Spain  ” ; the  skeins  of  different 
kinds  of  spun  silk  in  all  colours,  that  might  be  from  one 
of  the  markets  of  Granada  ” ; “ the  porters  such  as  in 
Castile  do  carry  burdens  ” ; the  great  temple,  of  which 
“ no  human  tongue  is  able  to  describe  the  greatness  and 
beauty  . . . the  principal  tower  of  which  is  higher  than 
the  great  tower  of  Seville  Cathedral  ” — all  reminded 
Cortes  of  his  native  Spain.  “ I will  only  say  of  this  city,” 


INTRODUCTION 


XXVll 


he  concludes,  “ that  in  the  service  and  manners  of  its 
people  their  fashion  of  living  is  almost  the  same  as  in 
Spain,  with  just  as  much  harmony  and  order  ; and  con- 
sidering that  these  people  were  barbarous,  so  cut  off  from 
the  knowledge  of  God  and  of  other  civilised  people,  it  is 
marvellous  to  see  to  what  they  have  attained  in  every 
respect/’  Thus  New  Spain  was  marked  out  of  all  the 
dominions  of  Spanish  Indies  as  that  which  was  in  closest 
relationship  with  the  mother  country. 

The  conquest  and  subjection  of  New  Spain  syn- 
chronised curiously  with  the  profound  crisis  in,  and  the 
conquest  and  domination  of,  Old  Spain  by  its  own  king, 
a governing  genius  and  leader  of  men  almost  as  great 
as  was  the  obscure  Estramaduran  squireling  who  was 
adding  to  the  newly  unified  crown  of  Spain  that  which  was 
to  be  its  richest  jewel  in  the  West.  When  Cortes  penned  his 
first  letter  to  the  future  Emperor  and  his  mad  mother  in 
July,  1519,  telling  them  of  the  new  found  land,  Spain  was 
in  the  throes  of  a great  convulsion.  The  young  Flemish 
prince  had  been  called  to  his  great  inheritance  by  the 
death  of  his  grandfather,  Ferdinand  the  Catholic,  and  the 
incapacity  of  his  Spanish  mother,  Queen  Juana.  Charles 
had  come  to  the  country  upon  which,  in  a financial  sense, 
the  burden  of  his  future  widespread  empire  was  to  depend, 
with  little  understanding  of  the  proud  and  ardent  people 
over  whom  he  was  to  rule.  He  spoke  no  Spanish,  and 
he  was  surrounded  by  greedy  Flemish  courtiers  dressed 
in  outlandish  garb,  speaking  in  a strange  tongue,  and 
looking  upon  the  realm  of  their  prince  as  a fat  pasture 
upon  which,  locust  like,  they  might  batten  with  impunity. 
The  Spaniards  had  frowned  to  see  the  great  Cardinal 
Jimenez  curtly  dismissed  by  the  boy  sovereign  whose 
crown  he  had  saved ; they  clamoured  indignantly  when 
the  Flemings  cast  themselves  upon  the  resources  of 
Castile  and  claimed  the  best  offices  civil  and  ecclesias- 
tical ; they  sternly  insisted  upon  the  young  king  taking 
a solemn  oath  that  Spain  in  future  should  be  for  the 
Spaniards  ; and  when  tardily  and  sulkily  they  voted 
supplies  of  money  the  grant  was  saddled  with  many 
irritating  conditions. 


xxviii  INTRODUCTION 

When  the  letter  of  Cortes  arrived  in  Spain  Charles  was 
at  close  grips  with  his  outraged  people,  for  he  had  broken 
all  his  promises  to  them.  Hurrying  across  the  country 
to  embark  and  claim  the  imperial  crown  of  Germany, 
vacant  by  the  death  of  his  grandfather  Maximilian,  eager 
for  the  large  sums  of  money  he  needed  for  his  purpose, 
which  Spain  of  all  his  realms  alone  could  provide,  the 
sovereign  was  trampling  upon  the  dearly  prized  charters 
of  his  people.  The  great  rising  of  the  Castilian  com- 
moners was  finally  crushed,  thanks  to  class  dissensions 
and  the  diplomacy  of  the  sovereign.  Thenceforward  the 
revenues  of  Castile  were  at  the  mercy  of  the  Emperor, 
whose  needs  for  his  world-wide  responsibilities  were 
insatiable  ; and  the  Indies  of  the  West,  being  the 
appanage  of  the  crown  of  Castile,  were  drained  to  uphold 
the  claim  of  Spain  and  its  Emperor-King  to  dictate  to 
Christendom  the  form  and  doctrines  of  its  religious 
faith.  It  is  no  wonder,  therefore,  that  the  despatches 
of  the  obscure  adventurer  who  announced  to  his 
sovereign  that,  in  spite  of  obstacles  thrown  in  his  way 
by  highly  placed  royal  officials,  he  had  conquered  a 
vast  civilised  empire  with  a mere  handful  of  followers, 
were  received  sympathetically  by  the  potentate  to 
whom  the  possession  of  fresh  sources  of  revenue  was 
so  important.  Cortes  in  his  various  letters  again  and 
again  claims  the  Emperor’s  patronage  of  his  bold 
defiance  of  the  Emperor’s  officers  on  the  ground  that 
the  latter  in  their  action  were  moved  solely  by  con- 
siderations of  their  personal  gain,  whereas  he,  Cortes, 
was  striving  to  endow  his  sovereign  with  a rich  new 
empire  and  boundless  treasure  whilst  carrying  into  the 
dark  pagan  land,  at  the  sword’s  point,  the  gentle  creed 
of  the  Christian  God. 

Of  this  religious  element  of  his  expedition  Cortes  never 
lost  sight ; he  was  licentious  in  his  life,  unscrupulous  in 
his  methods,  and  regardless  of  the  suffering  he  inflicted 
to  attain  his  ends  ; but  in  this  he  was  only  a son  of  his 
country  and  his  time ; such  qualities  might,  and  in  fact 
did,  accompany  the  most  devout  personal  piety  and  an 
exalted  religious  ideal.  That  the  imposition  of  Christian 


INTRODUCTION  xxix 

civilisation  upon  Mexico  meant  the  sacrifice  in  cold 
blood  of  countless  thousands  of  inoffensive  human 
creatures  was  as  nothing  when  once  the  legal  forms  had 
been  complied  with  and  the  people  could  be  assumed 
to  be  recalcitrant  or  rebellious  to  a decree  of  which  they 
understood  not  a word.  The  awful  holocaust  of  natives 
which  followed  the  Spanish  advance,  the  enslavement  of 
a whole  people  to  the  demon  of  greed,  especially  after 
the  withdrawal  of  Cortes  from  the  scene,  left  a bitter  crop 
of  estrangement  between  the  native  Mexicans  and  their 
white  masters,  of  which  the  rank  remains  have  not  even 
yet  been  quite  eradicated.  Cortes  himself,  as  great  in 
diplomacy  as  in  war,  it  is  true  made  himself  rich  beyond 
dreams,  though  he  was  defrauded  of  his  deserts,  even  as 
Columbus,  Balboa,  and  Pizarro  were  ; but  he  was  not 
wantonly  cruel,  and  in  the  circumstances  in  which  he 
was  placed  it  was  difficult  for  him  to  have  acted  very 
differently  from  what  he  did.  It  was  not  until  the 
smaller  men  displaced  him  and  came  to  enrich  them- 
selves at  any  cost  that  his  methods  were  debased  and 
degraded  to  vile  ends  and  the  policy  itself  was  rendered 
hateful. 

Thus,  whilst  New  Spain  was  always  held  to  be  nearer 
to  the  mother  country  than  any  other  American  lands 
and  more  of  a white  man’s  home  than  the  settlements  on 
the  Southern  Continent,  the  distrust  engendered  by  the 
ruthless  cruelty  of  the  earlier  years  of  the  occupation 
contributed  powerfully  to  retard  any  intimate  intermix- 
ture of  the  conquerors  and  the  conquered  races,  the 
closer  connection  with  Spain  also  keeping  the  Spanish- 
Mexican  decidedly  more  pure  in  blood  than  any  other 
Spanish  American  people.  This  will  account  for  the  fact 
that  the  various  Indian  races  of  Mexico  are  still,  to  a 
large  extent,  distinct  from  each  other  and  from  the 
pure  white  Mexicans  after  nearly  a century  of  native 
Republican  government.  In  the  State  of  Oaxaca  alone 
there  are  even  now  at  least  fifteen  perfectly  distinguish- 
able separate  tribes  of  pure  Indians,  of  which  two,  the 
Zapotecas  and  the  Mistecas,  comprise  more  than  half  the 
whole  population  of  the  State.  But,  this  notwithstand- 


XXX 


INTRODUCTION 


ing,  no  race  question  now  really  exists  in  Mexico.  The 
pure-blooded  Indians  frequently  occupy  the  highest 
positions  in  the  State,  as  judges,  soldiers,  or  savants,  the 
greatest  but  one  of  Mexican  Presidents,  Juarez,  having 
been  a full-blooded  Zapoteca,  whilst  the  present  ruler  of 
Mexico,  certainly  one  of  the  most  exalted  figures  in 
American  history,  General  Porfirio  Diaz,  is  justifiably 
prouder  of  his  Misteca  descent  than  of  the  white  ancestry 
he  also  claims.  Nor,  as  in  other  countries  of  similar 
ethnological  constitution,  does  the  Indian  population 
here  tend  to  decrease.  The  Mexican  Indian  or  half- 
breed  suffers  under  no  disability,  social  or  political,  and 
is  in  a decided  majority  of  the  population.  The  number 
of  pure  whites  in  the  country  is  estimated  at  about  three 
and  a half  millions,  out  of  a probable  nineteen  millions 
of  total  inhabitants,  eight  millions  being  pure  Indians 
and  about  seven  and  a half  millions  of  mixed  castes,  most 
of  whom  are  more  brown  than  white. 

The  future  of  the  Republic,  therefore,  in  an  ethno- 
logical sense,  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  problems  of 
the  American  Continent.  The  old  Spanish  aristocratic 
aloofness  traditional  on  the  part  of  the  pure  whites  will 
take  many  generations  entirely  to  break  down,  and  the 
increased  communication  between  the  Republic  and  the 
citizens  of  the  United  States  will  probably  reinforce  the 
white  races  with  a new  element  of  resistance  to  fusion  ; 
but  in  the  end  a homogeneous  brown  race  will  probably 
people  the  whole  of  Mexico — a race,  to  judge  from  the 
specimens  of  the  admixture  now  in  existence,  capable  of 
the  highest  duties  of  civilisation,  robust  in  body,  patriotic 
in  character,  progressive  and  law-abiding  to  a greater 
extent,  perhaps,  than  are  purely  Latin  peoples. 

The  present  book  relates  in  vivid  and  graphic  words 
the  history  of  Mexico  during  the  time  that  it  served  as  a 
milch  cow  to  the  insatiable  Spanish  kings  and  their 
satellites.  But  for  the  gold  and  silver  that  came  in  the 
fleet  from  New  Spain,  when,  indeed,  it  was  not  captured 
by  English  or  Dutch  rovers,  the  gigantic  imposition  of 
Spanish  power  in  Europe  could  not  have  been  main- 
tained even  as  a pretence  throughout  the  greater  part  of 


INTRODUCTION 


XXXI 


the  seventeenth  century  as  it  was.  For  nearly  three 
centuries  one  set  of  greedy  Viceroys  and  high  officials 
after  another  settled  from  the  mother  country  upon  unre- 
sisting Mexico  and  sucked  its  blood  like  vampires.  Some 
of  them,  it  is  true,  made  attempts  to  palliate  their  rapacity 
by  the  introduction  of  improved  methods  of  agriculture, 
mining,  and  the  civilised  arts,  and  Mexico,  in  close  touch 
with  Spain,  was  not  allowed,  as  the  neighbouring  Spanish 
territory  of  the  isthmus  was,  to  sink  into  utter  stagnation. 
The  efforts  of  the  Count  of  Tendilla  to  keep  his  Viceroyalty 
abreast  of  his  times  in  the  mid  sixteenth  century  are  still 
gratefully  remembered,  as  is  the  name  of  his  successor 
Velasco,  who  struck  a stout  blow  for  the  freedom  of  the 
native  Indians  enslaved  in  the  mines,  and  emancipated 
150,000  of  them.  But  on  the  whole,  especially  after  the 
establishment  of  the  Inquisition  in  Mexico,  the  story  of 
the  Spanish  domination  is  generally  one  of  greed,  oppres- 
sion, and  injustice,  alternating  with  periods  of  enlightened 
effort  on  the  part  of  individual  viceroys  more  high- 
minded  than  their  fellows. 

With  the  early  nineteenth  century  came  the  stirring  of 
a people  long  crushed  into  impotence.  The  mother 
country  was  in  the  throes  of  a great  war  against  the 
foreign  invader.  Deserted  and  abandoned  by  its  Spanish 
sovereign,  and  ruled,  where  it  was  ruled  at  all  by  civilians, 
by  a body  of  self-elected  revolutionary  doctrinaires,  the 
colonists  of  the  various  Viceroyalties  of  America  promptly 
shook  themselves  free  from  the  nerveless  grasp  that  had 
held  them  so  long.  A demand  for  an  immense  sum  of 
money  beyond  that  which  had  voluntarily  been  sent  by 
Mexico  to  aid  the  mother  country  against  Napoleon  was 
refused  in  1810,  and  a few  months  afterwards  the  long 
gathering  storm  burst.  The  man  who  first  formulated 
the  Mexican  cry  for  freedom  was  a priest,  one  Miguel 
Hidalgo.  He  had  already  organised  a widespread  revo- 
lutionary propaganda,  and  on  September  16,  1810,  the 
Viceregal  authorities  precipitated  matters  by  suppress- 
ing one  of  the  clubs,  at  Queretaro,  in  which  the  indepen- 
dence of  the  country  was  advocated.  Hidalgo  at  once 
called  his  followers  to  arms,  and  under  the  sacred  banner 


xxxii  INTRODUCTION 

of  the  Virgin  of  Guadalupe,  the  patron  saint  of  Mexico, 
led  some  50,000  ardent  patriots  through  the  country 
towards  the  capital  that  had  once  been  Motezuma’s. 
Subduing  all  the  land  he  crossed,  Hidalgo  finally  met  the 
royal  troops  on  the  30th  of  October  and  completely 
routed  them.  Then  the  rebel  army  gradually  fell  to 
pieces  in  consequence  of  unskilful  management,  and  at  a 
subsequent  battle  in  January,  1811,  was  entirely  defeated, 
Hidalgo  and  his  lieutenant  being  shortly  afterwards 
captured  and  shot. 

But  the  fire  thus  lit  could  never  again  be  entirely 
extinguished.  For  years  the  intermittent  struggle  went 
on  under  another  priest,  Morelos,  a true  national  Mexican 
hero  who  was  betrayed  to  the  Spaniards  in  1815,  and 
punished  first  by  the  Inquisition  as  a heretic  and  after- 
wards shot  as  a traitor  to  the  King  of  Spain.  The  sun  of 
the  Spanish  domination  of  Mexico  set  in  blood,  for  the 
wretched  reactionary  Ferdinand  VII.  was  on  the  throne 
of  the  mother  country,  determined  if  he  could  to  terrorise 
Spanish  America  into  obedience  as  he  had  done  Spain 
itself.  His  eagerness  to  do  so  defeated  itself.  A large 
army,  collected  at  Cadiz  for  the  purpose  of  crushing 
Mexico  into  obedience,  revolted  against  the  despot,  and 
then  the  Mexican  patriots,  under  Iturbide,  practically 
dominated  their  country.  The  new  Spanish  Hibernian 
Viceroy,  O’Dontroju,  could  but  bend  his  head  to  the 
storm,  and  in  September,  1821,  signed  a treaty  with  the 
insurgents  by  which  Mexico  was  acknowledged  to  be  an 
independent  constitutional  monarchy  under  the  Spanish 
king,  Ferdinand  VII. 

Such  a solution  of  a great  national  uprising  could  only 
be  temporary.  The  Spanish  Government  refused  to  ratify 
the  agreement  arrived  at  for  Mexico’s  independence,  and 
a barrack  pronouncement  acclaimed  Agustin  Iturbide 
Emperor  of  Mexico  in  June,  1822.  The  empire  of 
Iturbide  lasted  less  than  a year,  for  the  man  was  un- 
worthy, and  Mexican  patriots  had  not  fought  and  bled 
for  ten  years  against  one  despotism  for  the  purpose  of 
handing  themselves  over  to  another.  Iturbide  was 
deposed  and  exiled,  and  on  his  return  for  the  purpose 


INTRODUCTION 


XXXlll 


of  raising  his  standard  afresh  in  Mexico,  in  1824  the 
ex-Emperor  was  shot  as  an  enemy  to  the  peace  and 
tranquillity  of  his  country. 

The  Republic  of  Mexico  obtained  the  cordial  sup- 
port of  England  and  the  United  States,  and  when  in  1825 
the  last  Spanish  man-at-arms  retired  from  the  fortress  of 
San  Juan  de  Ulua,  off  Vera  Cruz,  all  Spanish-Americans 
on  the  two  continents  were  free  to  work  out  their  own 
destiny.  As  was  the  case  with  the  other  Republics, 
inexperience  in  the  science  of  government  and  attempts 
to  force  the  pace  of  progress,  condemned  Mexico  to  fifty 
years  of  turbulence  and  alternating  despotism  and  license. 
Ambitious  soldiers  strove  with  each  other  for  the  place  of 
highest  honour  and  profit.  Texas,  resenting  the  instability 
of  Creole  government,  separated  from  the  Mexican  States 
after  a devastating  war. 

Amongst  the  higher  classes  of  Mexicans  the  mon- 
archical tradition  which  had  prompted  the  experiment 
of  Iturbide’s  evanescent  empire  had  not  entirely  died 
out,  and  in  1840  a leading  Mexican  statesman,  Estrada, 
argued  in  an  open  letter  that  the  republican  form  of 
government  having  failed  to  secure  peace  to  the 
country,  it  would  be  advisable  to  establish  a Mexican 
monarchy  with  a member  of  one  of  the  old  ruling 
houses  of  Europe  at  its  head.  But  the  stormy  petrel 
of  Mexican  politics,  General  Saint  Anna,  pervaded  the 
scene  yet  for  many  years  more  ; and  in  1847  engaged 
in  a disastrous  war  with  the  United  States  on  the 
subject  of  the  Texan  boundary,  in  which  California 
was  lost  to  Mexico.  In  the  meanwhile  the  suggestion 
that  a monarchical  experiment  should  be  tried  never 
died  out;  and  when  in  i860  the  country  was  a prey 
to  civil  war  between  the  anti-clericals  under  the  great 
Juarez  and  the  Conservative  elements,  and  the  interest 
on  the  foreign  debt  was  suspended,  a pretext  offered 
for  the  intervention  of  France,  England,  and  Spain  in 
the  internal  affairs  of  Mexico,  supported  by  the  Con- 
servative and  monarchical  parties  in  the  country 
itself. 

The  ill-starred  ambition  of  Napoleon  III.  ended  in 

j** 


1 


XXXIV 


INTRODUCTION 


the  sacrifice  of  a chivalrous  and  well-meaning  prince, 
but  it  effected  for  Mexico  what  fifty  years  of  internal 
strife  had  been  unable  to  attain  : it  produced  a soli- 
darity of  Mexican  national  feeling  which  has  since 
then  welded  the  people  into  a stable  and  united 
nation,  in  no  danger  henceforward  of  falling  a prey 
to  foreign  ambition  or  of  lapsing  into  anarchy  from 
its  own  dissensions.  That  this  happy  end  has  been 
attained  has  been  due  mainly  to  the  genius  of  two 
men,  the  greatest  of  Mexico’s  sons,  who  have  in 
succession  appeared  at  the  moment  when  the  national 
crisis  needed  them.  To  Benito  Juarez,  the  Zapoteca 
Indian,  who  held  aloft  the  banner  of  Mexican  inde- 
pendence against  the  power  of  Napoleon’s  empire,  is 
due  not  alone  the  victory  over  the  invaders  but  the 
firm  establishment  of  a federal  constitutional  system. 
Juarez,  a lawyer  and  a judge,  insisted  upon  the  law 
being  supreme,  and  that  ambitious  generals  should 
thenceforward  be  the  servants  and  not  the  masters  of 
the  State. 

The  great  Juarez  died  in  1872,  and  for  the  last 
thirty-three  years,  with  a break  of  one  short  interval 
only,  Porfirio  Diaz  has  been  master  of  Mexico,  a 
benevolent  autocrat,  an  emperor  in  all  but  name, 
governing  with  a wise  moderation  which  recognises 
that  a country  situated  as  Mexico  is,  and  with  a 
population  as  yet  far  from  homogeneous  or  civilised 
in  the  European  sense,  must  of  necessity  be  led 
patiently  and  diplomatically  along  the  road  of  progress. 
To  reach  the  goal  of  material  and  moral  elevation  at 
which  Diaz  aims,  stability  of  institutions  and  of 
directors  is  the  first  need  ; and  the  President  has  been 
re-elected  seven  times  by  his  fellow  citizens  because 
they,  as  well  as  he,  can  see  that  his  brain  and  his 
hand  must  guide  the  mighty  engine  of  advance  that 
he  has  set  in  motion. 

The  effects  of  this  policy  have  already  been  pro- 
digious, and  there  is  probably  no  country  on  earth 
that  has  made  strides  so  gigantic  as  Mexico  in  the  last 
thirty  years.  It  is  due  mainly  to  the  labours  of  Diaz 


INTRODUCTION 


XXXV 


that  the  national  finance  has  been  placed  upon  a firm 
and  satisfactory  basis ; to  him  are  owing  the  extra- 
ordinary public  works  which  have  completed  the  vast 
system  of  drainage  of  the  Valley  of  Mexico,  initiated 
nearly  three  centuries  ago  ; by  him  the  Republic  has 
been  covered  by  a network  of  primary  and  secondary 
public  schools  rivalling  those  of  the  most  advanced 
European  countries.  One  of  the  most  beneficent  of 
the  President’s  recent  acts  has  been  the  rehabilitation 
in  1905  of  the  Mexican  silver  currency,  by  which  a 
fairly  stable  standard  exchange  value  is  secured  for  the 
national  coinage ; the  silver  dollar  fluctuating  now 
within  very  narrow  limits,  the  normal  value  being  one 
half  of  a United  States  dollar. 

The  constructive  work  of  this  really  great  man, 
indeed,  is  as  yet  difficult  to  appraise.  It  covers  nearly 
every  branch  of  national  activity,  and  it  is  only  by 
comparison  with  a past  state  of  affairs  that  anything 
like  an  adequate  idea  of  the  progress  effected  can  be 
formed.  In  1876  the  population  of  the  Republic  was 
9,300,000 ; it  is  now  about  19,000,000.  The  increase 
in  the  length  of  railways  constructed  in  the  same 
period  is  equally  remarkable,  rising  from  367  miles  in 
1876  to  15,000  miles  in  1908.  The  railways  hitherto 
have  been  mainly  built  by  English  and  United  States 
capitalists,  and  are  in  a great  measure  still  managed 
by  English-speaking  officers  ; but  the  important 
Transatlantic  line,  which  connects  the  port  of  Coatza- 
coalcos  on  the  Atlantic  side  with  Salina  Cruz  on  the 
Pacific,  is  a national  undertaking  carried  out  under 
contract  by  a great  English  contracting  firm.  The 
future  of  this  Tehuantepec  railway  promises  to  be  of 
the  highest  importance  as  connecting  Europe  and 
America  with  the  Far  East.  The  geographical  situation 
of  the  line  is  more  central  than  that  of  Panama, 
ensuring,  for  instance,  a saving  of  nearly  a thousand 
miles  between  Liverpool  and  Yokohama.  The  railway 
itself  across  the  isthmus  is  under  two  hundred  miles  in 
length,  and  the  ports  on  both  sides  are  capacious 
enough  to  deal  with  the  greatest  ships  afloat. 


XXXVI 


INTRODUCTION 


The  railways  running  from  the  United  States  into 
the  interior  of  Mexico  and  the  capital  convey  passengers 
thither  in  less  than  five  days  from  New  York.  They 
have  naturally  brought  much  Anglo-Saxon  American 
influence  into  the  country,  and  until  recent  years 
this  would  have  offered  some  danger  of  the  nation 
becoming  an  English-speaking  land,  as  its  former 
States,  Texas  and  California,  have  done.  The  new 
national  spirit  and  pride  of  race,  which  now  justifiably 
stirs  Mexicans,  will  in  future  make  such  an  eventuality 
improbable.  It  is,  indeed,  much  more  likely  that  in 
the  end  the  boundaries  of  a powerful,  prosperous 
Mexico  may  extend  to  the  group  of  small  and 
slowly-developing  Central  American  Republics  that  join 
it  on  the  south,  and  that  a vast  Spanish-speaking 
confederacy  will  under  an  enlightened  system  of 
government  ensure  for  all  time  the  domination  of 
this  axis  of  the  world’s  trade  to  the  descendants  of  the 
original  Conquerors  whose  blood  has  mingled  with 
that  of  the  peoples  they  subdued.  This  eventuality 
is  rendered  the  more  probable  by  the  advance  of  the 
Pan-American  Railway  which  is  being  pushed  south- 
west from  the  Tehuantepec  line  towards  Guatemala, 
and  will  when  completed  link  North  America  with  the 
southern  continent,  and  establish  a continuous  system 
from  New  York  to  the  Argentine  Republic.  This, 
however,  is  a dream  of  the  future  : for  the  present  be 
it  said  that  a regenerated  Mexico  has  saved  Central  and 
South  America  from  being  finally  swamped  by  Anglo- 
Saxondom,  and  has  ensured  the  perpetuation  in  “ The 
Land  of  To-morrow  ” of  the  Spanish  tongue  and  Latin 
traditions.  For  this  relief  much  thanks. 


MARTIN  HUME. 


MEXICO 


CHAPTER  I 

A FIRST  RECONNAISSANCE 

Romance  of  history — Two  entrance  ways — Vera  Cruz — Orizaba — The 
Great  Plateau — Fortress  of  Ulua — Sierra  Madre — Topographical 
structure — The  Gulf  coast — Tropical  region — Birds,  animals,  and 
vegetation  of  coast  zone — Ticrra  calieutc — Malaria — Foothills — 
Romantic  scenery — General  configuration  of  Mexico — Climatic  zones 
— Temperate  zone — Cold  zone — The  Cordillera — Snow-capped  peaks 
— Romance  of  mining — Devout  miners — Subterranean  shrines — The 
great  deserts — Sunset  on  the  Great  Plateau — Coyotes  and  zopilotes — 
Irrigated  plantations — Railways — Plateau  of  Anahuac — The  cities  of 
the  mesa  central — Spanish-American  civilisation — Romance  of 
Mexican  life — Mexican  girls,  music,  and  moonlight — The  pcones  and 
civilisation — American  comparisons — Pleasing  traits  of  the  Mexicans 
— The  foreigner  in  Mexico — Picturesque  mining-towns — Wealth  of 
silver — Conditions  of  travel — Railways — Invasions — Lerdo’s  axiom — 
Roads  and  horsemen — Strong  religious  sentiment — Popocatepetl  and 
Ixtaccihuatl — Sun-god  of  Teotihuacan — City  of  Mexico — Valley  of 
Mexico — The  Sierra  Madre — Divortia  aquarum  of  the  continent — 
Volcano  of  Colima — Forests  and  ravines — Cuernavaca — The  trail  of 
Cortes — Acapulco — Romantic  old  haciendas — Tropic  sunset — Unex- 
plored Guerrero — Perils  and  pleasures  of  the  trail — Sunset  in  the 
Pacific  Ocean. 

Mexico,  that  southern  land  lying  stretched  between  the 
Atlantic  and  Pacific  Oceans,  upon  the  tapering  base  of 
North  America,  is  a country  whose  name  is  fraught 
with  colour  and  meaning.  The  romance  of  its  history 
envelops  it  in  an  atmosphere  of  adventure  whose  charm 
even  the  prosaic  years  of  the  twentieth  century  have  not 
entirely  dispelled,  and  the  magnetism  of  the  hidden 
wealth  of  its  soil  still  invests  it  with  some  of  the 
attraction  it  held  for  the  old  Conquistadores.  It  was  in 

2 


2 


MEXICO 


the  memorable  age  of  ocean  chivalry  when  this  land  was 
first  won  for  Western  civilisation:  that  age  when  men  put 
forth  into  a sunset-land  of  Conquest,  whose  every  shore 
and  mountain-pass  concealed  some  El  Dorado  of  their 
dreams.  The  Mexico  of  to-day  is  not  less  interesting,  for 
its  vast  territory  holds  a wealth  of  historic  lore  and  a 
profusion  of  natural  riches.  Beneath  the  Mexican  sky, 
blue  and  serene,  stretch  great  tablelands,  tropic  forests, 
scorching  deserts,  and  fruitful  valleys,  crowned  by  the 
mineral-girt  mountain  ranges  of  the  Sierra  Madres;  and 
among  them  lie  the  strange  pyramids  of  the  bygone 
Aztecs,  and  the  rich  silver  mines  where  men  of  all  races 
have  enriched  themselves.  Mexico  is  part  of  that  great 
Land  of  Opportunity  which  the  Spanish-American  world 
has  retained  for  this  century. 

There  are  two  main  travelled  ways  into  Mexico.  The 
first  lies  across  the  stormy  waters  of  the  Mexican  Gulf  to 
the  yellow  strand  of  Vera  Cruz,  beyond  which  the  great 
“ star-mountain " of  the  Aztecs,  Citlaltepetl,1  rears  its 
gleaming  snow-cap  in  mid-heavens,  above  the  clouds. 
It  was  here  that  Cortes  landed,  four  centuries  ago, 
and  it  is  the  route  followed  by  the  tide  of  European 
travellers  to-day.  Otherwise,  the  way  lies  across  the 
Great  Plateau,  among  the  arid  plains  of  the  north,  where, 
between  the  sparsely-scattered  cities  and  plantations  of 
civilised  man,  the  fringe  of  Indian  life  is  spread  upon  the 
desert,  and  the  shadowy  forms  of  the  coyote  and  the 
cactus  blend  into  the  characteristic  landscape.  Both 
ways  are  replete  with  interest,  but  that  of  Vera  Cruz  is 
the  more  varied  and  characteristic.  Here  stands  Ulua,  the 
promontory-fortress,  where  more  than  one  of  Mexico’s 
short-lived  rulers  languished  and  died  of  yellow  fever, 
and  which  was  the  last  stronghold  of  Spain.  Beyond 
it  arise  the  white  buildings  and  towers  of  Vera  Cruz, 
a dream-city,  as  beheld  from  the  Gulf,  of  interest 
and  beauty ; and  to  the  west,  are  the  broad  coastal 
deserts,  bounded  by  the  foothills  and  tropic  valleys  of 
the  tierra  caliente  of  the  littoral.  Piled  up  to  the  horizon 
1 Orizaba,  18,250  feet  altitude. 


A FIRST  RECONNAISSANCE 


3 


are  the  wooded  slopes  and  canyons  of  the  great  Sierra 
Madre,  topped  by  the  gleaming  Orizaba,  towering 
upwards  in  solitary  majesty.  We  stand  upon  a torrid 
strand,  yet  gaze  upon  an  icy  mountain. 

A country  of  singular  topographic  structure  is  before 
us.  The  Mexican  Cordillera  conceals,  beyond  and  above 
it,  the  famous  Great  Plateau  ; the  mesa  central,  running  to 
the  northwards  eight  hundred  miles  or  more,  and  reaching 
westwardly  to  the  steep  escarpments  of  the  Pacific  slope. 
These  plutonic  and  volcanic  ranges  encircle  and  bisect 
the  great  tableland,  and  enclose  the  famous  Valley  of 
Mexico  and  its  beautiful  capital,  lying  far  beyond  the 
horizon,  above  the  clouds  which  rest  upon  the  canyons 
and  terraces  of  that  steep-rising  country  to  the  west.  Our 
journey  lies  upwards  to  this  Great  Plateau  of  Anahuac 
over  the  intervening  plains  and  mountain  range. 

It  is  a tropical  region  of  foliage,  flowers,  and  fruits, 
of  rugged  countryside  and  rushing  streams,  this  eastern 
slope  of  Mexico  ; and  the  blue  sky  and  flashing  sun 
form  the  ambient  of  a perpetual  summer-land.  We 
traverse  the  sandy  Tertiary  deserts  of  the  coast,  and 
thence  enter  among  groves  of  profuse  natural  vegetation, 
interspersed  with  cultivated  plantations.  In  these  the 
gleam  of  yellow  oranges  comes  from  among  the  foliage, 
and  the  graceful  leaves  of  the  platanos  and  rubber-trees 
fan  their  protecting  shade  over  young  coffee-trees.  But 
away  from  the  haunts  of  man  along  the  littoral  is  a 
region  of  startling  beauty — of  rivers  and  lagoons  and 
hills,  their  shores  and  slopes  garmented  with  perennial 
verdure,  the  forest-seas  bathing  the  bases  of  towering 
peaks.  Beautiful  birds  of  variegated  and  rainbow 
colours,  such  as  Mexico  is  famous  for,  people  these 
tropic  southern  lands  of  Vera  Cruz.  Along  the  shores 
and  in  the  woods  and  groves,  all  teeming  with  prolific 
life,  which  the  hot  sun  and  frequent  rains  induce,  the 
giant  cranes  and  brilliant-plumaged  herons  disport 
themselves,  and  gorgeous  butterflies  almost  outshine  the 
feathered  denizens.  From  the  tangled  boughs  the 
pendant  boa-constrictor  coils  himself,  and  hissing 


4 


MEXICO 


serpents,  basking  crocodiles,  and  prowling  jaguars  people 
the  untrodden  wilds  of  jungle  and  lagoon.  In  these 
great  virgin  forests  tribes  of  monkeys  find  their  home, 
and  the  tapir  and  the  cougar  have  their  being.  Man- 
groves, palms,  rubber-trees,  mahogany,  strange  flora,  and 
ungathered  fruits  run  riot  amid  this  tropical  profusion, 
and  flourish  and  fall  almost  unseen  of  man.  And  here 
the  malarias  of  the  lowlands  lurk — those  bilious  dis- 
orders which  man  is  ever  fighting  and  slowly  conquering. 
This  is  Mexico’s  tierra  caliente. 

But  our  way  lies  onwards  towards  the  mountains. 
A wildness  of  landscape,  unpictured  before,  opens 
to  the  view.  Here  rise  weird  rock-forms,  Nature’s 
cathedral  towers  and  grim  facades  magnificent  in 
solitude  and  awe-inspiring,  as  by  steep  bridle-paths  we 
take  our  way  along  the  valleys,  and  draw  rein  to  gaze 
upon  them.  Ponderous  and  sterile,  these  outworks 
and  buttresses  of  the  great  Sierra  Madre  rise  upwards, 
fortifications  reared  against  the  march  of  tropic  verdure 
beneath,  cloud-swathed  above  and  bathed  below  by 
forest-seas.  Born  in  that  high  environment  of  rains 
and  snows,  rippling  streams  descend,  falling  in  cascades 
and  babbling  rapids  adown  romantic  glens,  and  their 
life-giving  waters,  with  boisterous  ripple  or  murmuring 
softly,  take  their  way  over  silver  sand-bar  and  polished 
ledge  of  gleaming  quartz  or  marble,  winding  thence 
amid  corridors  of  stately  trees  and  banks  of  verdant 
vegetation,  to  where  they  fill  the  irrigation-channels  of 
white-clad  peasants,  far  away  on  the  plains  below. 

Still  onwards  and  upwards  lies  the  way.  One  of  the 
most  remarkable  railways  in  the  world  ascends  this  steep 
zone,  and  serpentines  among  sheer  descents  to  gain  the 
summits  of  abrupt  escarpments,  from  which — a remark- 
able feature  of  the  topography  of  the  eastern  slope  of 
Mexico — the  traveller  looks  down  as  into  another  country 
and  climate,  upon  those  tropical  valleys  which  he  has  left 
below.  This  is  the  Mexican  Vera  Cruz  railway. 

Let  us  pause  a moment  and  gain  a comprehensive  idea 
of  the  character  of  Mexico’s  configuration  and  climate. 


THE  ATLANTIC  SLOPE:  TUNNEL  AND  BRIDGE  OE  THE  IN’FIERNILLO  CASON,  OX  THE  MEXICAN  RAILWAY, 

IN  THE  STATE  OK  VERA  CRUZ. 

[To  pace  p.  4. 


A FIRST  RECONNAISSANCE 


5 


It  is  to  be  recollected  that  Mexico,  like  other  lands 
of  Western  America,  is  a country  of  relatively  recent 
geological  birth.  The  form  of  the  country  is  remarkable. 
It  shares  the  topographical  features  of  others  of  the 
Andine  countries  of  America — of  tropical  lowlands  and 
temperate  uplands,  in  which  latter  nearness  to  the  heat 
of  the  Equator  is  offset  by  the  coolness  of  the  rarefied 
air  of  high  elevations  above  sea-level.  This  structure  is 
the  dominant  note  of  the  scheme  of  Nature  in  Mexico — 
as  it  is  in  Peru  and  other  similar  countries — and  the 
anthropo -geographical  conditions  are  correspondingly 
marked.  The  region  first  passed  is  known  as  the 
tierra  caliente,  or  hot  lands.  Its  climatic  limit  extends 
up  the  slopes  of  the  Sierras  to  an  elevation  of  some 
3,000  feet  or  more,  embracing  the  lowlands,  hot  and 
humid  generally,  of  the  whole  of  the  Gulf  coast  and  of 
the  peninsula  of  Yucatan,  all  of  which  regions  are  sub- 
ject to  true  tropical  conditions — the  dense  forests,  the 
great  profusion  of  animal  life,  the  wonderful  abundance 
and  colour  of  Nature,  and  in  places  the  swamps  and  their 
accompanying  malarias,  shunned  by  the  traveller.  But 
yellow  fever  and  malaria  are  much  less  dreaded  now  than 
heretofore.  In  the  city  of  Vera  Cruz  and  in  Tampico 
the  new  era  of  sanitation,  brought  about  by  British  and 
American  example  and  seconded  by  the  Mexican  authori- 
ties, has  almost  banished  these  natural  scourges. 

Rising  from  the  tierra  caliente,  the  road  enters  upon 
the  more  temperate  zone,  the  tierra  templada,  extending 
upwards  towards  the  Great  Plateau.  The  limit  of  this 
climatic  zone  is  at  the  elevation  of  6,000  feet  above  sea- 
level,  and  here  are  evergreen  oaks,  pine,  and  the  extra- 
ordinary forms  of  the  organ  cactus,  as  well  as  orchids. 
It  is,  indeed,  a transition  zone  from  the  hot  to  the  cold 
climates,  and  the  zone  embraces  the  greater  part  of  the 
area  of  Mexico.  Rising  rapidly  thence  up  to  and  over 
the  escarpments  of  the  Sierra  Madre  and  the  high  plains, 
we  shall  enter  upon  the  tierra  fria  or  cold  lands,  ranging 
from  6,000  feet  to  8,000  feet  above  sea  level.  Above  this 
rise  the  high  summits  of  the  Mexican  Cordilleras,  with 


6 


MEXICO 


their  culminating  peaks,  some  few  of  which  penetrate 
the  atmosphere  above  the  limit  of  perpetual  snow.  Thus, 
three  diverse  climatic  zones  are  encountered  in  Mexico, 
which,  ever  since  the  advent,  of  the  Spaniards,  have  been 
designated  as  the  tierra  fria,  tierra  templada,  and  tierra 
caliente  respectively.  These  conditions,  as  will  be  seen 
later,  are  also  encountered  upon  the  Pacific  slope. 

We  now  ascend  the  steep  upper  zone  of  the  Sierra 
Madre,  and  cross  it,  descending  thence  to  the  Great 
Plateau  or  mesa  central,  the  dominating  topographical 
feature  of  the  country.  Here  lies  the  real  Mexico  of 
history,  and  here  is  the  main  theatre  of  the  new  land  of 
industrial  awakening.  Within  the  mountain  ranges — 
that  which  we  have  crossed,  and  those  which  intersect 
this  vast  tableland  and  bound  it  on  three  sides — lies  the 
great  wealth  of  minerals — gold,  silver,  and  others — which 
have  attracted  men  of  all  races  and  all  times  since  Cortes 
came.  Here  the  true  fairy  tales  of  long  ago,  of  millions 
won  by  stroke  of  pick,  had  their  setting,  and  indeed,  have 
it  still.  Upon  these  hills  the  thankful  miner  reared 
temples  to  his  saints,  and  blessed,  in  altar  and  crucifix, 
the  mother  of  God  who  graciously  permitted  his  enrich- 
ment ! And  as  if  such  devotion  were  to  be  unstinted,  he 
also  places  his  shrines  within  the  bowels  of  the  mines, 
and  pauses  as  he  struggles  through  the  dark  galleries,  with 
heavy  pack  of  silver  rock  upon  his  back,  to  bend  his  knee 
a moment  before  the  candle-lighted  subterranean  altar. 

And  now  great  desert  plains  unfold  to  view.  Upon 
their  confines  arise  the  blue  mountain  ranges  which 
intersect  them,  their  canyons  and  slopes,  though  faint  in 
distance  and  blurred  by  shimmering  heat  arising  from 
the  desert  floor,  yet  cast  into  distinct  tracery  by  the  rays 
of  the  sun.  Towards  the  azure  vault  overhead,  as  we 
behold  the  arid  landscape,  eddying  dust-pillars  whirl 
skywards  upon  the  horizon,  or  perhaps  a cloud  of  dust, 
far  away  upon  the  trail  which  winds  over  the  flat  expanse, 
denotes  some  evidence  of  man — horseman  or  ox-cart 
pursuing  its  leisurely  and  monotonous  way.  Upon  the 
edges  of  the  dry  stream-beds,  or  arroyos,  which  descend 


THE  GREAT  PLATEAU  : NIGHTFALL  IN  THE  DESERT. 


A FIRST  RECONNAISSANCE 


7 


from  the  hills  and  lose  themselves  in  wide  alluvial  fans 
upon  the  sandy  waste,  a fringe  of  scant  vegetation 
appears,  nourished  by  the  water  which  flows  down  them 
in  time  of  rain. 

Beneath  our  horses’  hoofs  the  white  alkali  crust  which 
thinly  covers  the  desert  floor,  crumbles  and  breaks. 
Gaunt  cacti  stretch  their  skinny  branches  across  the  trail, 
which  winds  among  foothills  and  ravines,  and  the  horned 
toads  and  the  lizards,  the  only  visible  beings  of  the 
animal  world  here,  play  in  and  out  of  their  labyrinths 
as  we  pass.  We  are  upon  the  Great  Plateau.  All  is  vast, 
reposeful,  boundless.  The  sun  rises  and  sets  as  it  does 
upon  some  calm  ocean,  describing  its  glowing  arc  across 
the  cloudless  vault  above,  from  Orient  to  Occident. 
Sun-scorched  by  day,  the  temperature  drops  rapidly  as 
night  falls  upon  these  elevated  steppes,  7,000  feet  or  more 
above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  the  bitter  cold  of  the 
rarefied  air  before  the  dawn  takes  possession  of  the 
atmosphere.  The  shivering  peones  of  the  villages  rise 
betimes  to  catch  the  sun’s  first  rays,  and  stand  or  squat 
against  the  eastern  side  of  their  adobe  huts,  what  time 
the  orb  of  day  shows  his  red  disc  above  the  far  horizon. 
La  capa  de  los  pobrcs — “ the  poor  man’s  cloak  ” — they 
term  the  sun,  as  with  grateful  benediction  they  watch  his 
coming,  and  stamp  their  sandalled  feet. 

Impressive  and  melancholy  is  the  nightfall  upon  the 
Great  Plateau.  The  opalescent  tints  of  the  dying  day,  and 
the  scarlet  curtains  flung  across  the  Occident  at  the  sun’s 
exit  give  place  to  that  indescribable  depth  of  purple  of 
the  high  upland’s  sky.  The  faint  ranges  of  hills  which 
bound  the  distant  horizon  take  on  those  diminishing 
shades  which  their  respective  distances  assign  them, 
and  stand  delicately,  ethereally,  against  the  waning 
colours  of  the  sunset,  whilst  the  foreground  rocks  are 
silhouetted  violet-black  against  the  desert  floor.  The 
long  shadows  which  were  projected  across  the  wilderness, 
and  the  roseate  flush  which  the  setting  sun  had  cast 
upon  the  westward-facing  escarpments  behind  us,  have 
both  disappeared  together.  Impenetrable  gloom  lurks 


8 


MEXICO 


beneath  the  faces  of  the  cliffs,  the  mournful  howl  of  the 
coyotes  comes  across  the  plain,  and  their  slinking  forms 
emerge  from  the  shadow  of  the  rocks.  There  is  a shape- 
less heap,  the  carcass  of  some  dead  mule  or  ox,  some 
jetsam  of  the  desert,  lying  near  at  hand,  at  which  my 
horse  was  uneasy  as  I drew  rein  in  contemplation, 
and  which  explains  the  nearness  of  the  beasts  of  prey, 
and  the  long  line  of  zopilotes,  or  buzzards,  which  I had 
observed  to  cross  the  fading  gleam  of  the  firmament. 
All  is  solitary,  deserted,  peaceful.  The  day  is  done,  the 
night  has  come,  “ in  which  no  man  can  work.” 

At  daylight  the  uncultivated  desert  gives  place  to 
human  habitations  ; and  we  approach  the  hacienda  of 
a large  landowner,  with  its  irrigated  plantations,  and 
adobe  buildings  which  form  the  abodes  of  the  workers. 
All  around  are  vast  fields  of  maguey,  or  plantations 
of  cotton,  stretching  as  far  as  can  be  seen.  Great 
herds  of  cattle,  rounded  up  by  picturesque  vaqueros  with 
silver-garnished  saddles  and  strange  hats  and  whirling 
lassoes,  paw  the  dusty  ground,  shortly  to  writhe 
beneath  the  hot  imprint  of  the  branding-iron.  Long 
irrigation  ditches,  brimming  with  water  from  some 
distant  river,  and  fringed  with  trees,  wind  away  among 
the  plantations ; and  white-clad  peones,  hoe  in  hand, 
tend  the  long  furrows  whose  parallel  lines  are  lost  in 
perspective.  Centre  of  the  whole  panorama  is  the 
dwelling-house  of  the  hacendado,  the  owner  of  the  lands; 
and  almost  of  the  bodies  and  souls  of  the  inhabitants! 
Quaint  and  old-world,  the  place  and  its  atmosphere  trans- 
port the  imagination  to  past  centuries,  for  the  aspect  of 
the  whole  still  bears  the  stamp  of  its  mediaeval  beginning, 
save  where  the  new  Mexican  millionaire-landowner  has 
planted  some  luxurious  abode,  replete  with  modern 
convenience. 

But  these  are  not  isolated  from  the  world  upon  this 
Great  Plateau  so  much  as  might  appear  at  first  glance. 
There  is  a puff  of  smoke  upon  the  horizon,  and  the 
whistle  of  a locomotive  strikes  upon  the  ear.  The  rail- 
way which  links  this  great  oasis  of  cultivated  fields  with 


ON  THE  GREAT  PLATEAU  : VIEW  OF  THE  CITY  OF  DURANGO, 


A FIRST  RECONNAISSANCE 


9 


others  similar,  and  with  the  world  beyond,  runs  near  at 
hand,  and  will  bear  us,  do  we  wish  it,  away  to  the  con- 
fines of  the  Republic  in  the  north,  to  the  United  States, 
and  in  five  days  to  New  York.  Southwards  it  winds 
away  to  the  great  capital  City  of  Mexico,  to  Vera  Cruz, 
and  thence  on  towards  the  borders  of  Guatemala. 
But  let  us  avoid  the  railway  yet.  Not  thus,  in  the 
comfort  of  the  Pullman  cushions,  do  we  know  the 
spirit  and  atmosphere  of  Mexico  ; but  the  saddle  and  the 
dusty  road  shall  be  our  self-chosen  portion.  Indeed,  it 
will  be  so  from  sheer  necessity,  for  our  way  will  lie  on- 
wards to  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  no  railway  of  the 
plateau  quite  reaches  this  yet. 

Throughout  the  Great  Plateau  of  Anahuac,  separated  by 
long  stretches  of  dusty  wilderness,  unclothed  except  by 
scanty  thorny  shrubs,  and  scarcely  inhabited  except  by 
the  coyote  and  the  tecolote,1  are  handsome  cities  with  their 
surrounding  cultivation  and  characteristic  life.  As  we 
top  the  summit  of  a range  and  behold  these  centres  of 
population  from  afar,  a bird’s-eye  view  and  philosophical 
comprehension  of  their  ensemble  is  obtained.  Seen 
from  the  outside,  they  present  a picturesque  view  of 
cathedral  spires  and  gleaming  domes  and  white  walls  ; 
the  towers  rising  from  the  lesser  buildings  amid  groves  of 
verdant  trees,  forming  a striking  group,  all  backed 
by  the  blue  range  of  some  distant  sierra.  The  main 
group  shades  off  into  a fringe  of  jacales — the  squalid 
habitations  of  the  peones,  and  of  the  city’s  poor  and 
outcast,  with  rambling,  dusty  roads  bordered  by  hedges 
of  prickly  pear,  or  nopales  ; picturesque,  quaint,  the  roads 
ankle-deep  in  white  adobe  dust,  which  rises  from  beneath 
our  horse's  hoofs  and  covers  us  with  an  impalpable  flour 
upon  traversing  the  environs  of  the  place.  Clattering 
over  the  cobble-paved  streets,  we  rapidly  approach  the 
central  pulse  of  the  town,  the  plaza.  Singular  shops, 
where  fruits  and  meats  and  clothing  are  displayed  in  win- 
dowless array,  line  the  streets,  and  quaint  dwelling-houses, 
with  iron  grilles  covering  their  windows,  giving  them 
1 Mexican  night  owl. 


10 


MEXICO 


the  mediaeval  Hispanic  aspect  familiar  to  the  Spanish- 
American  traveller.  Into  these  we  gaze  down  from  the 
height  of  the  saddle  in  passing,  and  perchance  some 
dark-haired  Mexican  damsel,  who  has  been  snatching  a 
moment  from  her  household  duties  to  gaze  at  the  outside 
world,  retires  suddenly  from  the  balcony  with  well-simu- 
lated haste  and  modesty  before  the  rude  gaze  of  the 
approaching  stranger.  Indians  or  peones  in  loose  white 
garments  of  cotton  manta,  with  huge  Mexican  straw  hats, 
and  scarlet  blankets  depending  from  their  shoulders,  stalk 
through  the  street,  or  issue  from  ill-smelling  pulque  shops, 
whose  singularly-painted  exteriors  arrest  the  attention. 
Gaunt  dogs  prowl  about  and  lap  the  water  of  the  open 
acequias,  or  ditch-gutters,  between  the  road  and  the  foot- 
path, fighting  for  some  stray  morsel  thrown  into  the  street 
from  the  open  doors  of  the  shops  aforesaid.  Of  stone  or 
of  adobe — generally  the  latter — according  to  the  geology 
of  the  particular  neighbourhood,  the  houses  are  whitened 
or  tinted  outside,  with  flat  roofs,  or  azoteas.  Through  the 
wide  entrance-door  a glimpse  is  obtained  of  an  interior 
paved  patio,  adorned,  in  the  better-class  homes,  with  tubs 
of  palms  and  flowers  ; and  before  one  of  such  a character 
we  draw  rein — the  meson  or  fonda,  the  hotel  under 
whose  roof  temporary  shelter  shall  be  sought.  This  abode 
faces  the  plaza,  and  opposite  rises  the  quaint  church — or 
cathedral  if  it  be  a State  capital  city — which  is  the  domi- 
nating note  of  the  community. 

Exceedingly  picturesque  are  the  fine  cities  which  form 
Mexico’s  chief  centres  of  civilisation  along  the  Great 
Plateau — Chihuahua,  Durango,  Guadalajara,  Puebla,  and 
many  others.  They  have  that  quaint,  old-world  air 
ever  characteristic  of  Spanish-America,  unspoilt  by  the 
elements  of  manufacturing  communities.  Their  shady 
plazas  are  centres  of  recreation  and  social  life,  always  in 
evidence,  distinctive  of  Spanish-American  civilisation, 
where  music  is  a part  of  the  government  of  the  people ; 
a feature  far  more  prominent  than  in  Britain  or 
the  United  States.  The  cathedrals,  the  quaint  archi- 
tecture of  the  streets,  the  barred  windows,  and  the  pic- 


A FIRST  RECONNAISSANCE  11 


turesque  dress  of  the  working  class,  form  an  atmosphere 
of  distinctive  life  and  colour.  Let  us  halt  a moment  in 
the  plaza.  The  band  is  discoursing  soft  music,  varied  by 
some  stirring  martial  air  ; the  Mexican  moon  has  risen, 
and  now  that  the  sunset  colours  pale,  vies  with  the  lamps 
of  the  well-lit  promenade  to  illumine  a happy  but  simple 
scene.  Its  rays  shine  through  the  feathery  boughs  of 
the  palms,  and  glisten  on  the  broad,  elegant  leaves  of  the 
platanos — which  grow  even  in  the  upland  valleys — whilst 
the  scent  of  orange-blossoms  falls  softly  through  the 
balmy  air,  as  in  ceaseless  promenade  fair  maidens 
and  chatting  youths,  with  coquetry  and  stolen  glance, 
pass  round  the  square  untiringly.  White  dresses  and 
black  eyes  and  raven  tresses — the  olive-complexioned 
beauties  of  the  Mexican  uplands  take  their  fill  of  passing 
joy.  The  moment  is  sweet,  peaceful,  even  romantic  ; 
let  us  dally  a moment,  nor  chafe  our  cold  northern 
blood  for  more  energetic  scenes.  Do  we  ask  bright 
glances  ? Here  are  such.  Shall  we  refuse  to  be  their 
recipient  ? And  moonlight,  palms,  and  music,  and 
evening  breeze,  and  convent  tolling  bell,  and  happy  crowd 
— no,  it  is  not  a scene  from  some  dream  of  opera,  but 
a phase  of  every-day  life  in  Mexico. 

In  many  respects  it  is  an  atmosphere  of  charm  and 
interest  which  the  traveller  encounters  in  Mexican  life, 
especially  if  he  has  recently  arrived  from  among  the 
prosaic  surroundings  of  Mexico’s  great  northern  neigh- 
bour, the  United  States.  Indeed,  the  transition  from  the 
busy  Anglo-Saxon  world  which  hurries  and  bustles  in 
strenuous  life  northward  from  the  Rio  Grande,  to  that 
pastoral  and  primitive  land  of  Spanish-America  is  as 
marked  as  that  between  Britain  and  the  Orient.  Yet  it 
is  only  divided  by  a shallow  stream — the  Rio  Grande. 
As  the  traveller  crosses  this  boundary  he  leaves  behind 
him  the  twentieth  century,  and  goes  back  in  time  some 
hundreds  of  years — a change,  it  may  be  said  en  passant , 
which  is  not  without  benefit,  and  attractive  in  some 
respect.  The  brusque  and  selfish  American  atmosphere 
is  left  behind,  the  patience  and  courtesy  of  Mexico  is 


12 


MEXICO 


felt.  The  aggressive  struggle  for  life  gives  place  to  the 
recollection  that  to  acquire  wealth  is  not  necessarily  the 
only  business  of  all  men  and  all  nations  ; for  the  patient 
peon  lives  in  happiness  without  it.  You  may  scorn  him, 
but  he  is  one  of  Nature's  object-lessons. 

Singularly  un-American — that  is  if  United  States  and 
Canadian  manners  and  customs  shall  be  considered 
typical  of  America — are  the  customs  of  the  Mexican. 
The  influence  and  romance  of  the  long  years  of  Spanish 
domination  and  character  have  been  crystallised  upon 
the  Mexican  soil.  The  mien  and  character  of  the  race 
created  here  in  New  Spain  is  marked  for  all  time  as 
a distinctive  type,  which  may  possess  more  for  the 
future  than  the  votary  of  Anglo-Saxon  civilisation  and 
strenuous  commercialism  may  yet  suspect.  Whatever 
critical  comparison  may  be  applied  to  these  people,  the 
foreigner  will  acknowledge  the  pleasing  trait  of  courtesy 
they  invariably  show.  The  elegance  and  grace  of  Spanish 
manners,  wafted  across  the  Atlantic  in  the  days  of  ocean 
chivalry,  were  budded  to  the  gentle  courtesy  of  the  native  ; 
and  the  brusque  Anglo-Saxon  is  almost  ashamed  of  his 
seeming  or  intended  brusqueness  before  the  graceful 
salutation  of  the  poorest  peon.  Hat  in  hand,  and  with 
courteous  or  devout  wish  for  your  welfare  on  his  lips,  the 
poor  Mexican  seems  almost  a reproach  to  the  harbinger 
of  an  outside  world  which  seemingly  grows  more  hard 
and  commercial  as  time  goes  on. 

The  picturesque  and  the  simple  are,  of  course,  bought 
at  the  expense,  too  often,  of  hygiene  and  comfort,  and 
Mexico  does  not  escape  this  present  law.  Yet  it  is 
remarkable  how  soon  the  Briton  or  the  American  in 
Mexico  adapts  himself  to  his  surroundings,  and  grows  to 
regard  them  with  affection.  It  is  true  that  the  govern- 
ment of  the  country  is  practically  a military  despotism, 
yet  the  foreigner  is  respected,  and  none  interfere  with 
him.  On  the  contrary,  he  is  often  looked  up  to  as  a 
representative  of  a superior  State,  and  if  he  be  worthy  he 
acquires  some  of  the  demeanour  of  vace-noblesse  oblige. 

There  are  cities  set  on  steep  hill-sides,  which  we  shall 


A FIRST  RECONNAISSANCE 


13 


enter.  Terrace  after  terrace  climb  the  rocky  ribs  of  arid 
hills.  Houses,  interspersed  with  gardens  ; communities 
backed  by  the  soft  outlines  of  distant  ranges,  seen 
adown  the  widening  valley ; and  walls,  houses,  streets, 
people,  landscape  ; all  are  of  that  distinctive  colour  and 
character  of  the  Mexican  upland,  over-arched  by  the 
cloudless  azure  of  its  sky.  Clustered  upon  these  same 
steep  mineral-bearing  hills — and,  indeed,  they  are  the 
raison  d’etre  of  the  town  at  all  in  that  spot — are  the  great 
mining  places,  ancient  and  modern,  which  form  so 
important  a feature  of  the  life  of  the  country  on  the 
Great  Plateau. 

Fabulous  wealth  of  silver  has  been  dug  from  these 
everlasting  hills.  Grim  and  abandoned  mine-mouths, 
far  away  like  black  dots  upon  the  slopes,  and  strange 
honeycombed  galleries  and  caverns  far  beneath  the 
outcropping  of  the  lodes,  have  vomited  rich  silver  ore 
for  centuries  : and  the  clang  of  miners'  steel  and  the 
dropping  candle  are  now,  as  ever,  the  accompaniment  of 
labour  of  these  hardy  peones.  The  very  church,  perhaps, 
is  redolent  of  mining,  and  was  raised  by  some  pious 
delver  in  the  bowels  of  the  hill  whereon  it  stands — a 
thank-offering  for  some  great  luck  of  open  sesame  which 
his  saints  afforded  him. 

But  we  will  not  linger  here  ; Guanajuato  and  Zacatecas 
and  Pachuca  shall  be  our  theme  in  another  chapter,  and 
the  tale  of  toil  and  silver  which  they  tell.  For  the 
moment  the  way  lies  down  the  Great  Plateau,  among  its 
intersecting  ranges  of  hills,  through  the  fertile  valleys, 
which  alternate  with  the  appalling  sun-beat  deserts. 

The  conditions  of  travel  in  this  great  land  of  Mexico 
— it  is  nearly  two  thousand  miles  in  length — are,  per- 
haps, less  arduous  than  in  Spanish-American  countries 
generally.  Mexico  has  lent  itself  well  to  the  building 
of  railways  in  a longitudinal  direction,  upon  the  line  of 
least  resistance  from  north-west  to  south-east,  paralleling 
its  general  Andine  structure.  Several  great  trunk  lines 
thus  connect  the  capital  City  of  Mexico  and  the  southern 
part  of  the  republic  with  the  civilisation  of  the  United 


14 


MEXICO 


States,  over  this  relatively  easy  route.  Yet  the  earliest 
railway  of  Mexico,  that  from  Vera  Cruz  to  the  City  of 
Mexico,  traverses  the  country  in  the  most  difficult  direc- 
tion, transversely,  rising  from  tide-water  and  the  Atlantic 
littoral,  and  ascending  the  steep  escarpments  of  the 
Eastern  Sierra  Madre  to  fall  down  into  the  lake-valley  of 
Mexico,  bringing  outside  civilisation  to  that  isolated 
interior  world.  But  Mexico’s  singular  topographical  posi- 
tion did  not  secure  her  from  invasion.  Three  times  the 
city  on  the  lakes  has  fallen  to  foreign  invaders — the 
Spaniards  of  the  Conquest,  the  French  of  Napoleon, 
and  the  Americans  of  the  United  States.  Indeed,  the  flat 
and  arid  tableland  stretching  away  for  such  interminable 
distances  to  the  north  was  formerly  a more  potent 
natural  defence  than  the  Cordilleran  heights  which  front 
on  the  Atlantic  seas  ; and  the  axiom  of  Lerdo  is  well 
brought  to  mind  in  considering  the  geographical 
environment : “ Between  weakness  and  strength — the 
desert ! ” 

But  away  from  the  railways,  and  the  roads  where 
diligencias  ply  their  lumbering  and  dusty  course,  the 
saddle  is  the  only,  and  indeed  the  most  characteristic, 
mode  of  travel  ; and  the  arriero  and  his  string  of  pack- 
mules  is  the  common  carrier,  and  the  mountain  road  or 
dusty  desert  trail  the  means  of  communication  from 
place  to  place.  Along  these  the  horseman  follows,  day 
after  day,  his  hard  but  interesting  road,  for  to  the  lover 
of  Nature  and  incident  the  saddle  ever  brings  matter  of 
interest  unattainable  by  other  means  of  locomotion. 
The  glorious  morning  air,  the  unfolding  panorama  of 
landscape — even  the  desert  and  the  far-off  mountain 
spur  which  he  must  round  ere  evening  falls,  are  sources, 
of  exhilaration  and  interest.  The  simple  people  and 
their  quaint  dwellings,  where  in  acute  struggle  for  life 
with  Nature  they  wrest  a living  from  rocks  and  thorns 
— are  these  not  subjects,  even,  worthy  of  some  passing 
philosophical  thought  ? Not  a hilltop  in  the  vicinity 
of  any  human  habitations — be  they  but  the  wretched 
jacales  or  wattle-huts  of  the  poorest  peasants — but  is 


ORIZABA,  CAPPED  WITH  PERPETUAL  SNOW  : VIEW  ON  THE  MEXICAN  RAILWAY  AT  CORDOVA. 


A FIRST  RECONNAISSANCE  15 


surmounted  by  a cross : not  a spring  or  well  but  is 
adorned  with  flowers  in  honour  of  that  patron  saint 
whose  name  it  bears  ; and  not  a field  or  hamlet  or  mine 
but  has  some  religious  nomenclature  or  attribute.  For 
the  Mexicans  are  a race  into  which  the  religion  of  the 
Conquistadores  penetrated  indelibly,  whose  hold  upon 
them  time  scarcely  unlooses.  The  creeds  of  the  priests, 
moreover,  are  interwoven  with  the  remains  of  Aztec 
theistic  influence,  and  the  superstitions  of  both  systems 
hold  the  ignorant  peasantry  of  Mexico  in  enduring  thrall. 
Much  of  beauty  and  pathetic  quaintness  there  is  in  this 
strong  religious  sentiment,  which  no  thinking  observer 
will  deride  ; much  of  retrograde  ignorance,  which  he  will 
lament  to  see. 

The  Great  Plateau  tapers  away  towards  the  south, 
terminating  in  the  Valley  of  Mexico,  bounded  by 
the  snowy  Cordillera  of  Anahuac.  Within  this  range 
are  two  great  volcanic  uplifts,  two  beautiful  mountain 
peaks,  crowned  with  perpetual  snow — the  culminating 
orographical  features  of  the  Sierras,  and  the  highest  points 
in  Mexico.  The  loftiest  of  these  is  Popocatepetl,  “the 
smoking  mountain,”  and  its  companion  is  Ixtaccihuatl, 
the  “sleeping  woman,”  both  of  poetical  Indian  nomen- 
clature. These  beautiful  solitary  uplifts  rise  far  above 
the  canyons  and  forests  at  their  bases : penetrate 
the  clouds  which  sometimes  wreath  them,  terminating 
in  a porcelain-gleaming  summit  of  perpetual  snow.  The 
mid-day  sun  flashes  upon  them,  rendering  them  visible 
from  afar,  and  its  declining  rays  paint  them  with  that 
carmine  glow  known  to  the  Andine  and  Alpine  traveller, 
which  arrests  his  vision  as  evening  falls.  So  fell,  indeed, 
the  morning  rays  of  the  orb  of  day  upon  the  burnished 
golden  breastplates  of  the  image  set  on  the  sacred 
pyramid  of  Teotihuacan  : the  sun-god,  Tonatiuah,  as  in 
the  shadowy  Toltec  days  he  faced  the  flashing  east. 

Prehistoric  fact  and  fable  press  hard  upon  us  as  we 
approach  the  famous  Valley  of  Mexico  and  its  fine  capital. 
This  is  the  region  where  that  singular  “ stone  age  ” 
flourished,  of  pyramid-building  and  stone-shaping 


16 


MEXICO 


peoples.  Here  both  geology  and  history  have  written 
their  pages,  as  if  Nature  and  Fate  had  conspired 
together  to  mark  epochs  of  time  and  space  in  ancient 
temple,  dead  revolution,  and  slumbering  volcano. 
And  now  below  us  lies  the  City  of  Mexico.  From  the 
wooded  uplands  and  hill-summits — redolent  of  pine  and 
exhilarating  with  the  tonic  air — which  form  the  rim  of 
the  valley,  the  panorama  of  the  capital  and  its  environs 
lies  open  to  the  view.  Plains  crossed  by  white  streaks 
of  far-off  roads,  intersecting  the  chequered  fields  of  green 
alfalfa  and  yellow  maize  ; haciendas  and  villages  em- 
bowered in  luxuriant  foliage  ; the  gleam  of  domes  and 
towers,  softened  in  the  glamour  of  distance  and  bathed 
by  a reposeful  atmosphere  and  mediaeval  tints — such  is 
Mexico,  this  fair  city  of  the  West. 

The  City  of  Mexico,  like  most  centres  of  human  habita- 
tion in  whatever  part  of  the  world,  is  most  beautiful 
when  seen  from  afar,  and  in  conjunction  with  Nature’s 
environment.  But  the  old  Aztec  city,  the  dark,  romantic 
seat  of  the  viceroys,  the  theatre  of  revolutionary  struggle, 
and  the  modern  centre  of  this  important  Mexican  civilisa- 
tion, is  a really  handsome  and  attractive  city.  Indeed, 
the  capitals  of  many  Spanish-American  republics,  and 
their  civilisation  and  social  regime,  are  often  in  the  nature 
of  a revelation  to  the  traveller  from  Europe  or  the  United 
States,  who  has  generally  pictured  a far  more  primitive 
State.  With  its  handsome  institutions  and  public  build- 
ings, and  extensive  boulevards  and  parks,  and  character- 
istic social,  literary,  and  commercial  life,  the  City  of 
Mexico  may  be  described  as  Americo- Parisian,  and 
it  is  rapidly  becoming  a centre  of  attraction  for 
United  States  tourists,  who,  avid  of  historical  and 
foreign  colour,  descend  thither  in  Pullman-car  loads  from 
the  north.  The  city  lies  some  three  miles  from  the  shore 
of  Lake  Texcoco,  which,  with  that  of  Chaleo  and  others, 
forms  a group  of  salt-  and  fresh-water  lagoons  in  the 
strange  Valley  of  Mexico.  At  the  time  of  the  Conquest  the 
city  stood  upon  an  island,  connected  with  the  mainland  by 
the  remarkable  stone  causeways  upon  which  the  struggles 


PINE-CLAD  HILLS  FORMIXO  THE  RIM  OF  THE  VALLEY  OF  MEXICO,  8,000  FEET  ELEVATION  ABOVE  SEA-LEVEL. 


A FIRST  RECONNAISSANCE  17 


between  the  Spaniards  and  the  Aztecs  took  place,  during 
the  siege  of  the  city  at  the  time  of  the  Conquest.  But 
these  lakes,  after  the  manner  of  other  bodies  of  water, 
generally,  in  the  high  elevations  of  the  American 
Cordilleras — Titicaca,  in  Peru,  to  wit — are  gradually 
perishing  by  evaporation,  their  waters  diminishing  cen- 
tury by  century.  The  Valley  of  Mexico,  however,  of 
recent  years  has  received  an  artificial  hydrographic  outlet 
in  the  famous  drainage  canal  and  tunnel,  which  conducts 
the  overflow  into  a tributary  of  the  Panuco  river,  and  so 
to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

The  Valley  of  Mexico  is  surrounded  by  volcanic  hills, 
forming  a more  recent  formation  of  the  Andine  folds,  of 
which  the  Sierra  Madres  compose  the  Mexican  Cordilleras. 
We  have  now  to  cross  this,  for  our  faces  are  set  towards 
the  Pacific  Ocean.  We  ascend  and  pass  the  Western 
Sierra  Madre,  the  divortia  aquarum  of  the  Pacific  water- 
shed, leaving  the  intra-montane  plateau  of  Anahuac  and 
the  mesa  central  behind  us.  Again  the  climate  changes 
as  the  downward  journey  is  begun,  and  again  the 
tierra  caliente  is  approached.  The  culminating  peaks — 
the  beautiful  Popocatepetl  and  Ixtaccihuatl — sink  now 
below  the  eastern  horizon,  but  as  we  journey  to  the  west 
Colima’s  smoking  cone  will  rise  before  the  view.  The 
descent  from  the  highlands  to  the  west  coast  is  even 
more  rapid  than  to  the  east,  and  the  temperate 
climate  of  the  valleys,  and  the  bitter  cold  of  the  early 
morning  on  the  uplands,  soon  give  place  to  tropical 
conditions.  Extensive  forests  of  oak  and  pine,  clothing 
the  sides  of  the  canyons  and  barrancas  of  the  high  Sierra 
Madre,  are  succeeded  by  the  profuse  vegetation  of  the 
torrid  zone.  Down  in  the  soft  regions  of  the  west,  where 
tropical  agriculture  yields  its  plentiful  and  easily-won 
harvests,  are  romantic  old  haciendas  and  villages  hidden 
away  in  the  folds  of  the  landscape,  such  as  are  a delight 
to  the  traveller  and  the  lover  of  the  picturesque.  The 
“ happy  valley  ” of  Cuernavaca  is  reached  by  railway 
from  the  capital,  but  beyond  this  the  road  to  the  sea- 
board is  still  that  ancient  trail  which  Cortes  used,  which 

3 


18 


MEXICO 


descends  to  Acapulco,  for  the  railway  builders  have  not 
yet  completed  their  works  to  the  Pacific  waters. 

Away  from  the  main  route  of  travel  lie  sequestered  old 
sugar  estates,  and  villages  of  romantic  and  picturesque 
charm,  yet  untouched  by  speculator  or  capitalist.  Antique 
piles  of  stone  buildings  are  there,  redolent  of  that  peculiar 
poetry  of  the  pastoral  life  of  Mexico  in  the  tropics.  The 
old  Spaniards  built  well ; their  solid  masonry  defies  the 
centuries  ; and  their  most  prosaic  structures  were  invested 
with  an  architectural  charm  which  the  rapid  money-seeker 
of  to-day  cares  little  for,  in  his  corrugated  iron  and  tem- 
porary materialism.  Near  to  the  arches,  columns,  and 
turrets  of  the  old  haciendas  the  garden  lies,  replete  with 
strange  fruits  and  flowers.  The  gleam  of  oranges  and 
limes  comes  from  the  tangled  groves  ; grapes  and  pome- 
granates vie  with  each  other  in  unattended  profusion. 
The  iguana  sports  among  the  old  stone  walls  of  the  great 
garden,  and  humming-birds  and  butterflies  hover  in  the 
subtle  atmosphere.  The  tropic  sunset  throws  a peaceful 
glamour  and  serenity  over  all.  The  cocoanut  palms,  with 
feathery  grace  above  and  slender  column  upward  rearing, 
stir  not  against  their  ethereal  setting  as  we  watch,  and  the 
passing  water  in  the  old  aqueduct  scarce  breaks  the  tropic 
silence,  or  if,  perchance,  it  whisper,  murmurs  of  centuries 
past,  a low  refrain. 

But  we  shall  journey  away  from  the  haunts  of  man  again, 
and  penetrate  the  deep  dark  barrancas  and  little-known 
mountain-fastnesses  of  the  western  slope  of  the  State 
of  Guerrero.  Here  are  great  uninhabited  and  unexplored 
stretches  of  country,  rugged  and  wild,  replete  with 
matters  of  interest,  whether  for  hunter,  sportsman,  or 
archaeologist.  Indeed,  it  would  be  difficult  to  find  a 
region  offering  so  varied  a nature  of  resource  and 
interest  in  any  part  of  the  world,  except  possibly  in 
the  still  less  accessible  wilds  of  the  Amazonian  slopes 
of  the  Peruvian  Andes.  The  botanist  will  find  on 
this  Pacific  side  of  Mexico  an  unstudied  flora,  and  the 
ethnologist  and  the  antiquarian  a number  of  native 
races,  speaking  strange  separate  languages ; and  the 


TYPICAL  VILLAGE  OF  THE  PACIFIC  COAST  ZONE  : STATE  OF  COLIMA. 


[To  face  />.  18. 


A FIRST  RECONNAISSANCE  19 


ruins  of  thousands  of  the  habitations  of  prehistoric 
man.  The  climate  in  these  rugged  regions  ranges 
from  the  heat  of  the  fierce  tropical  sun  to  the  bitter 
cold  of  the  mountain  summits.  Abundant  bosques  or 
forests  of  oak  cover  the  higher  regions,  and  the  wild 
and  broken  nature  of  the  country  renders  it  difficult 
to  traverse,  and  calls  for  the  adventurous  spirit  of  the 
pioneer  and  explorer,  without  which  the  traveller  will 
but  meet  with  discomfort  and  danger. 

Yet  the  true  traveller  finds  pleasure  in  these  matters. 
The  impressive  grandeur  of  the  mountain  landscape, 
the  endless  forests,  the  profound  ravines  do  but  serve 
to  divert  his  mind  from  the  peril  and  discomfort  of 
the  trail.  Here  he  may  revel  in  Nature’s  untamed 
handiwork  of  mountain,  forest,  and  flood,  as  day  after 
day  he  journeys  onward  in  the  saddle  towards  the 
Pacific  Ocean.  Here  are  the  imposing  barrancas  of 
Jalisco  which  he  traverses,  and  marks  how  they  are 
buried  in  the  profuse  vegetation  which  presses  up  to 
the  very  border  of  the  lava  of  smoking  Ceboruco. 
Thence  the  myrtle  forests  of  Tepic  are  penetrated.  On  the 
tropic  lakes  thousands  of  log-like  alligators  lie,  gloomily 
awaiting  their  prey.  From  the  verge,  which  rich 
forests  fringe,  and  where  brilliant  water-weeds  encircle 
the  shoals,  dainty  pink  and  white  herons  rise,  and 
below  the  blue  surface  gleams  the  sheen  of  myriad 
fish.  Far  to  the  southwards  the  fitful  volcanic  flames 
of  Colima  light  up  the  landscape  at  night.  A day’s 
journey  more  across  the  coastal  plains,  and  our 
reconnaissance  is  finished.  The  long-drawn  surf  beats 
upon  the  shore  of  the  vast  western  ocean,  for  we  have 
crossed  the  continent ; and  the  sun’s  glowing  disc  dips 
to  the  blood-red  waves — sunset  in  the  Pacific. 


CHAPTER  II 


THE  DAWN  OF  MEXICO  : TOLTECS  AND  AZTECS 


Lake  Texcoco — Valley  of  Anahuac — Seat  of  the  Aztec  civilisation — Snow- 
capped peaks  — Pyramids  of  Teotihuacan  — Toltecs  — The  first 
Aztecs — The  eagle,  cactus,  and  serpent — Aztec  oracle  and  wander- 
ings — Tenochtitlan  — Prehistoric  American  civilisations  — Maya, 
Incas — Quito  and  Peru— The  dawn  of  history — The  Toltec  empire — 
Rise,  regime , fall— Quetzacoatl — Otomies — Chichemecas — Nezahual- 
coyotl — Astlan — The  seven  tribes  and  their  wanderings — Mexican 
war-god  — The  Teocallis  — Human  sacrifices  — Prehistoric  City  of 
Mexico — The  Causeways — Aztec  arts,  kings,  and  civilisation — Monte- 
zuma—Guatemoc — Impressions  of  the  Spaniards — The  golden  age  of 
Texcoco — Vandalism  of  Spanish  archbishop — The  poet-king  and  his 
religion — Temple  to  the  Unknown  God — Aztecs  and  Incas  com- 
pared— The  Tlascalans — The  Otomies — Cholula — Mexican  tribes — 
Aztec  buildings — Prehistoric  art — Origin  of  American  prehistoric 
civilisation — Biblical  analogies — Supposed  Asiatic  and  Egyptian 
origins — Aboriginal  theory. 


Like  the  misty  cloud-streaks  of  the  early  dawn,  the 
beginning  of  the  story  of  the  strange  empire  of  pre- 
historic Mexico  unfolds  from  fable  and  fact  as  we 
look  back  upon  it.  We  are  to  imagine  ourselves  upon 
the  shores  of  Lake  Texcoco,  in  the  high  valley-plateau  of 
Anahuac,  “ the  land  amid  the  waters.”  It  is  the  year 
1300,  or  a little  later,  of  the  Christian  era.  The 
borders  of  the  lake  are  marshy  and  sedgy,  the  sur- 
rounding plain  is  bare  and  open,  and  there  is  no 
vestige  of  man  and  his  habitation.  Far  away,  east, 
west,  and  north,  faint  mountain  ranges  rise,  shimmer- 
ing to  the  view  in  the  sun’s  rays  through  the  clear 

upland  air,  whilst  to  the  south  two  beautiful  gleaming 

20 


] 


(Fromithe  painting  in^Mexico.)  [To  face  />.  21. 


THE  DAWN  OF  MEXICO 


21 


snow-capped  peaks  are  seen,1  and  over  all  is  the  deep 
blue  vault  of  the  tropic  highland  sky. 

We  have  said  that  there  are  no  vestiges  of  man  or 
his  structures  to  be  seen,  yet  upon  gazing  penetra- 
tingly  towards  the  north-east  there  might  be  observed 
the  tops  of  two  high  ruined  pyramids,2  the  vestiges 
of  the  civilisation  of  the  shadowy  Toltecs.  But  we 
are  not  for  the  moment  concerned  with  these  ruined 
structures,  for,  as  we  watch,  a band  of  dusky  warriors, 
strangely  clad,  comes  over  the  plain.  They  come 
like  men  on  some  set  purpose,  glancing  about  them, 
at  the  shores  of  the  lake,  at  the  horizon,  expectantly, 
yet  with  a certain  vague  wistfulness  as  of  deferred  hope. 
Suddenly  their  leader  halts  and  utters  an  ejaculation  ; 
and  with  one  hand  shading  the  sun’s  rays  from  his 
eyes  he  points  with  outstretched  arm  towards  the  water’s 
edge.  His  companions  gaze  intently  in  the  direction 
indicated,  and  then  run  forward  with  joyous  shouts 
and  gesticulations.  What  is  it  that  has  aroused  their 
emotions  ? Near  the  lake-shore  a rock  arises,  over- 
grown with  a thorny  nopal,  or  prickly-pear  cactus, 
and  perched  upon  this  is  an  eagle  with  a serpent  in 
its  beak. 

Who  are  these  men  and  whence  have  they  come  ? 
They  are  the  first  Aztecs,  and  they  have  come  “ from 
the  north  ” ; and  for  centuries  they  have  been  wander- 
ing from  place  to  place,  seeking  a promised  land  which 
their  deity  had  offered  them,  a land  where  they  should 
found  a city  and  an  empire.  The  hoped-for  oracle  is 
before  them,  the  promised  symbol  which  they  had 
been  bidden  to  seek,  by  which  they  should  know  the 
destined  spot — an  eagle  perched  upon  a nopal  with  a 
serpent  in  its  beak : and  their  wanderings  are  at  an 
end.  Here  they  pitched  their  camp,  and  here  as  time 
went  on  the  wonderful  city  of  Tenochtitlan  arose,  the 
centre  of  the  strange  Aztec  civilisation.  Thus,  fable 
records,  was  first  established  the  site  of  Mexico  City  ; 

1 Ixtaccihuatl  and  Popocatepetl. 

2 Teotihuacan  : pyramids  of  the  sun  and  moon. 


22 


MEXICO 


prehistoric,  despotic,  barbaric,  first ; mediaeval,  dark, 
romantic,  later  ; handsome  and  interesting  to-day. 

But  whence  came  these  men  ? That,  indeed,  who 
shall  say  ? Whence  came  the  strange  civilisation  of 
the  American  races — Maya,  Toltec,  Aztec,  Inca  ? To 
Mexico  and  Yucatan  and  Guatemala,  to  Quito  and  Peru, 
whence  came  the  peoples  who  built  stone  temples, 
pyramids,  halls,  tombs,  inscribed  hieroglyphics,  and 
wrought  cunning  arts,  such  as  by  their  ruins,  relics,  and 
traditions  arouse  our  admiration  even  to-day.  History 
does  not  say,  yet  what  glimmerings  of  history  and 
legend  there  are  serve  to  take  us  farther  back  in  time, 
although  scarcely  to  a fixed  starting-point,  for  the  thread 
of  the  tale  of  wanderings  and  developments  of  these 
people  of  Mexico — a thread  which  seems  traceable  among 
the  ruined  structures  of  Anahuac. 

The  first  glimmerings  of  this  history-legend  refer  to 
an  unknown  country  “in  the  north.”  About  the  middle 
of  the  third  century  of  the  Christian  era  there  proceeded 
thence  the  people  known  as  the  Mayas,  who  traversed 
Mexico  and  arrived  in  Yucatan  ; and  they  are  the 
reputed  originators  of  the  singular  and  beautiful  temples 
encountered  there,  and  the  teachers  of  the  stone-shaping 
art  whose  results  arouse  the  admiration  of  the  archae- 
ologist and  traveller  of  to-day,  in  that  part  of  Mexico. 
The  descendants  of  the  Mayas  are  among  the  most 
intelligent  of  the  native  tribes  inhabiting  the  Republic, 
doubtless  due  to  the  influence  of  the  polity  and 
work  of  their  ancestors.  Time  went  on.  About  the 
middle  of  the  sixth  century  A.D.  another  people  came 
“ out  of  the  north  ” — the  famous  Toltecs,  and  in  their 
southward  migration  they  founded  successive  cities, 
ultimately  remaining  at  Tollan,  or  Tula,  and  to  them 
are  attributed  the  remarkable  pyramids  of  Teotihuacan, 
Cholula,  and  other  structures.  Tula  is  some  fifty  miles 
to  the  north  of  the  modern  city  of  Mexico,  and  it  formed 
the  centre  of  the  powerful  empire  and  civilisation  of  this 
cultured  people.  Eleven  monarchs  reigned,  but  the 
Toltec  Empire  was  overthrown  ; the  people  dispersed, 


THE  DAWN  OF  MEXICO 


23 


and  they  mysteriously  disappeared  at  the  beginning  of 
the  twelfth  century  A.D.,  after  some  450  years  of  existence. 
None  of  these  dates,  however,  can  be  looked  upon  as 
really  belonging  to  the  realm  of  exact  history. 

Tradition  also  has  it  that  the  Toltecs  were  dispersed  by 
reason  of  a great  famine  due  to  drought,  followed  by 
pestilence,  only  a few  people  surviving.  Banished  from 
the  scene  of  their  civilisation  by  these  disasters,  the  few 
remaining  inhabitants  made  their  way  to  Yucatan  and 
Central  America ; and  their  names  and  traditions  seem 
to  be  stamped  there.  Beyond  this  little  is  known  of  the 
Toltecs.  Possibly  some  of  them  found  their  way  still 
further  south  to  Ecuador  and  Peru,  and  influenced  the 
Inca  civilisations  of  the  South  American  continent.  To 
the  Toltecs  is  ascribed  the  most  refined  civilisation  of 
prehistoric  America,  a culture  which  was  indeed  the 
source  of  the  far  inferior  one  of  the  Aztecs,  which  we 
shall  presently  observe.  The  Toltecs  wrought  cleverly 
in  gold  and  silver,  and  in  cotton  fabrics  ; whilst  the 
remarkable  character  of  their  buildings  and  structures  is 
shown  by  the  ruins  of  these  to-day,  as  at  Cholula  and 
Teotihuacan.  The  art  of  picture-writing  is  attributed  to 
them  ; and  the  famous  Calendar  stone  of  Mexico  has 
also  been  ascribed  to  these  people.  From  amid  the 
shadowy  history  of  the  Toltecs  the  traditions  of  the  deity 
which  so  largely  influenced  prehistoric  Mexican  religion 
arose  : the  mystic  Quetzacoatl,  the  “ god  of  the  air,” 
“ the  feathered  serpent.”  This  strange  personage  was 
impressed  upon  the  people’s  mind  as  a white  man  of  a 
foreign  race,  with  noble  features,  long  beard,  and  flowing 
garments  ; and  he  taught  them  a sane  religion,  in  which 
virtue  and  austerity  were  dominant,  and  the  sacrifice  of 
human  beings  and  animals  forbidden.  This  singular 
personage,  runs  the  fable,  disappeared  after  twenty 
years’  sojourn  among  them,  in  the  direction  of  the  rising 
sun,  having  promised  to  return.  When  the  Spaniards 
came  out  of  the  East  their  coming  was  hailed  as  the 
return  of  Quetzacoatl,  and  the  reverence  and  superstition 
surrounding  these  supposed  “ children  of  the  sun  ” pro- 


24 


MEXICO 


tected  the  Spaniards  and  permitted  their  advance  into  the 
country,  and  indeed,  was  at  length  conducive  to  the 
downfall  of  Montezuma  and  the  Aztec  Empire. 

So  pass  the  cultured,  shadowy  Toltecs  from  our  vision. 
They  had  been  preceded  in  their  southward  migration 
by  the  Otomies,  in  the  seventh  century  a.d.,  an  exceed- 
ingly numerous  and  primitive  people  who  almost  annihi- 
lated the  Spaniards  during  the  Conquest,  and  whose 
descendants  to-day  occupy  a vast  region,  and  still  largely 
speak  their  own  language,  rather  than  Spanish.  The 
Toltecs  were  succeeded  by  yet  another  tribe  "from  the 
north,”  the  Chichemecas,  who  came  down  and  occupied 
their  civilisation  of  Tula.  These  people,  warlike  and 
inferior  in  culture  to  the  Toltecs,  allied  themselves  with 
the  neighbouring  Nahua  tribes,  and  an  empire  came  into 
being,  with  its  capital  at  Texcoco,  on  the  shore  of  the 
great  lake.  The  famous  Nezahualcoyotl,  the  poet-king  of 
this  empire,  who  ascended  the  throne  of  Texcoco  in  1431, 
was  one  of  the  most  remarkable  figures  of  prehistoric 
Anahuac,  and  his  genius  and  fortunes  recall  the  history 
of  Alfred  of  England,  to  the  student’s  mind.  He  built 
a splendid  palace  at  Texcotzinco,  and  ruins  of  its  walls 
and  aqueducts  remain  to  this  day.  His  life  is  sketched 
in  these  pages  subsequently,  and  something  of  the  beauty 
of  his  philosophy  set  forth. 

And  thus  history  has  brought  us  again  to  the  Aztecs, 
the  founders  of  Tenochtitlan  by  the  lake-shore,  on  the 
spot  indicated  by  their  oracle.  They  had  come  " from 
the  north,”  one  of  seven  tribes  or  families,  all  of  which 
spoke  the  Nahuatl  or  Mexican  tongue.  This  unknown 
country,  called  Astlan,  or  "the  land  of  the  herons,”  was 
the  home  of  these  seven  tribes — the  Mexicas,  or  Aztecs, 
the  Tlascalans,  Xochimilcas,  Tepanecas,  Colhuas,  Chalcas 
and  Tlahincas — and  has  been  varyingly  assigned  a 
locality  in  California,  and  in  Sinaloa.  Why  the  Aztecs 
left  their  northern  home  is  not  known,  even  in  legend, 
but  they  were  instigated  to  their  wanderings,  tradition 
says,  by  their  fabled  war-god,  Huitzilopochtli,  or  Mexitl, 
from  whom  came  the  name  " Mexica”  or  "Azteca,”  by 


r 


(Exploration  and  restoration  work  being  carried  on.)  [To  face  p . 24. 


THE  DAWN  OF  MEXICO 


25 


which  these  people  called  themselves.  From  the  begin- 
ning of  the  tenth  to  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth 
century  a.d.  this  tribe  journeyed  and  sojourned  on  its 
southward  way,  from  valley  to  valley,  from  lake  to  lake, 
from  Chapala  to  Patzcuaro,  and  thence  to  Tula,  the  old 
Toltec  capital.  Once  more  dispersed,  they  wandered  on, 
and,  guided  by  their  oracle,  reached  their  final  resting- 
place  at  Tenochtitlan.  This  name,  by  which  they 
designated  their  capital,  was  derived  either  from  that  of 
Tenoch,  their  venerated  high  priest,  or  from  the  Aztec 
words  meaning  “ stone-serpent/’  in  reference  to  the 
emblem  they  had  followed. 

The  first  work  of  the  people  was  to  raise  a great  temple 
to  their  god — the  bloodthirsty  Huitzilopochtli — who  had 
led  them  on.  It  was  begun  at  once,  and  around  it  grew 
the  habitations  of  the  people,  the  huts  made  of  reeds  and 
mud  called  xacali,  such  as  indeed  to-day  form  the  habi- 
tations of  a large  part  of  Mexican  people  under  the  name 
of  jacalcs.1  This  great  Teocalli,  or  “ house  of  god,”  at  the 
time  of  the  arrival  of  the  Spaniards,  was  a structure 
pyramidal  in  form,  built  of  earth  and  pebbles  and  faced 
with  cut  stone,  square  at  base,  its  sides — 300  to  400  feet 
long- — facing  the  cardinal  points  of  the  heavens.  Flights 
of  steps  on  the  outside,  winding  round  the  truncated 
pyramid,  gave  access  to  the  summit.  Here  in  the  sanc- 
tuary was  the  colossal  image  of  the  Aztec  war-god — the 
abominable  conception  of  a barbaric  people — and  the 
stone  of  sacrifice  upon  which  the  sacrificial  captives 
were  laid.  Upon  its  convex  surface  the  unhappy 
wretches  were  successively  bound,  their  breasts  cut  open 
with  obsidian  knives,  and  the  still  beating  hearts,  torn 
forth  by  the  hand  of  the  priest,  were  flung  smoking  before 
the  deity  ! 

Upon  the  marshy  borders  of  this  lake,  set  in  the 
beautiful  and  fertile  valley  of  Anahuac,  the  city  rose 
to  elegance  and  splendour.  The  jacales  gave  place  to 
buildings  of  brick  and  stone,  founded  in  many  cases 
upon  piles,  and  between  them  were  streets  and  canals, 

1 X and  j are  often  interchangeable  in  Spanish. 


26 


MEXICO 


giving  access  to  the  city  from  the  lake.  Centre  of  all 
was  the  great  Teocalli. 

The  position  of  the  city  was  peculiar.  It  was  founded 
upon  an  island,  and  was  subject  to  inundations  from  the 
salt  waters  of  the  lake ; for  the  Valley  of  Mexico  had  at 
that  time  no  outlet  for  its  streams.  It  formed  a hydro- 
graphic  entity ; and  in  this  connection  it  reminds  the 
traveller  of  the  birthplace  of  that  other  strange,  prehistoric 
American  civilisation,  three  thousand  miles  away  to  the 
south-east — Lake  Titicaca  and  the  cradle  of  the  Incas. 
To  protect  the  city  from  these  inundations  embankments 
were  made,  and  other  works  which  attest  the  engineering 
capabilities  of  the  people.  Four  great  causeways  gave 
access  to  the  marshy  island  upon  which  the  capital  was 
situated — structures  of  stones  and  mortar,  the  longest 
being  some  four  or  five  miles  in  length.  To-day  one  of 
these  forms  part  of  a modern  street,  and  the  waters  of  the 
lake  have  retired  more  than  two  miles  from  the  city. 

The  habitations  of  the  principal  people  were  built  of 
stone,  and  the  interior  of  polished  marbles  and  rare 
woods.  Painting  and  sculpture  embellished  these 
interiors  and  exteriors,  although  these  were  generally 
crude  and  barbaric  in  their  execution  and  representation. 
Around  the  city  and  upon  the  shores  of  the  lakes, 
numerous  villages  arose,  surrounded  by  luxurious  gardens 
and  orchards,  and  the  singular  chinampas,  or  floating 
gardens,  were  made,  with  their  wealth  of  flowers,  such 
as  the  early  Mexicans  both  loved  and  demanded  for 
sacrificial  ceremonies. 

Naturally,  all  this  development  took  time.  Yet  the 
rise  of  this  civilisation  must  be  considered  rapid — pro- 
bably it  was  largely  inherited  in  principle.  The  first 
Aztec  government  was  the  theocratic  and  military  regime 
established  in  the  fourteenth  century  under  Tenoch,  a 
military  priest  and  leader  who  died  in  1343.  Less  than 
two  hundred  years  afterwards  the  city  of  Tenochtitlan 
was  in  the  zenith  of  power  and  culture  at  the  moment 
when  it  fell  before  the  Spaniards.  Ten  kings  followed 
Tenoch,  the  first  being  Itzcoatl,  who  may  be  considered 


I 


THE  VALLEY  OF  MEXICO  : VIEW  ON  LAKE  TEXCOCO  ; THE  MODERN  CITY  OF  MEXICO  IN  THE  DISTANCE. 

[To  face  p.  26. 


THE  DAWN  OF  MEXICO 


27 


the  real  founder  of  the  empire.  He  was  followed  by  the 
first  Montezuma,  who  greatly  extended  its  sway,  dying  in 
1469.  Then  came  Axayacatl,  who  is  considered  to  be 
the  constructor  of  the  famous  Mexican  Calendar  stone. 
Tizoc,  his  successor,  hoped  to  win  the  favour  of  the  war- 
god  by  the  reconstruction  of  the  great  Teocalli,  whose 
service  was  inaugurated  by  the  infamous  Ahuizotl  in 
1487  and  at  whose  dedication  an  appalling  number  of 
human  sacrifices  were  made.  Then  at  the  beginning  of 
1500  the  throne  was  ascended  by  Montezuma  the  Second, 
who  further  extended  the  beauty  and  power  of  the  Aztec 
capital,  but  who,  vacillating  and  weighed  down  by  the 
fear  of  destiny,  lived  but  to  witness  the  beginning  of  the 
fall  of  Mexico  before  the  Spaniards  in  1519.  The 
brave  Guatemoc,  the  last  of  his  line,  strove  vainly  to 
uphold  the  dynasty  against  the  invaders. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  the  Aztecs  created  a remarkable 
centre  of  semi-barbaric  civilisation,  and  the  descriptions 
given  by  the  Spanish  historians — whether  those  who 
accompanied  Cortes,  as  Bernal  Diaz,  or  those  who  drew 
their  colouring  from  these  accounts — are  such  as  to 
arouse  the  interest  and  enthusiasm  even  of  the  reader 
of  to-day.  In  this  connection,  of  course,  it  is  to  be 
recollected  that  Cortes  and  his  followers  were  not  all 
men  of  education  or  trained  knowledge  of  the  great 
cities  of  the  civilised  world,  and  there  is  no  doubt  that 
they  lacked  somewhat  the  faculty  of  comparison,  and 
over-estimated  what  they  beheld.  Let  us  translate  from 
Clavijero,  a Spanish  historian  and  Jesuit  who  wrote 
later,  and  who  describes  the  scene  which  the  Spaniards 
beheld  from  the  summit  of  the  great  Teocalli  as  “ many 
beautiful  buildings,  gleaming,  whitened,  and  burnished  ; 
the  tall  minarets  of  the  temples  scattered  over  the  various 
quarters  of  the  city ; the  canals ; verdant  plantations 
and  gardens — all  forming  a beautiful  whole  which  the 
Spaniards  never  ceased  to  admire,  especially  observing 
it  from  the  summits  of  the  great  temples  which  dominated 
not  only  the  city  immediately  below,  but  its  environs  and 
the  large  towns  beyond.  No  less  marvellous  were  the 


28 


MEXICO 


royal  palaces  and  the  infinite  variety  of  plants  and 
animals  kept  there ; but  nothing  caused  them  greater 
admiration  than  the  great  market  plaza.”  “Not  a 
Spaniard  of  them,”  according  to  Bernal  Diaz,  the  soldier- 
historian  of  the  Conquest,  who  was  there  and  saw  it  all, 
although  he  wrote  about  it  long  afterwards,  “ but  held  it 
in  high  praise,  and  some  of  them  who  had  journeyed 
among  European  cities  swore  they  had  never  seen  so 
vast  a concourse  of  merchants  and  merchandise.” 
Returning  to  our  history,  it  is  not  to  be  supposed  that 
this  powerful  Aztec  nation,  with  their  fine  capital  of 
Tenochtitlan,  were  the  only  people  inhabiting  the  land  of 
Anahuac  at  that  time.  Several  other  peoples  held  sway 
there.  On  the  eastern  side  of  Lake  Texcoco,  a few 
leagues  away,  lived  the  Texcocans,  already  mentioned  ; 
one  of  the  tribes  who  also  had  come  “ from  the  north  " 
in  early  days  and  who  had  settled  there.  They  also  had 
developed  or  inherited  a civilisation  akin  to  that  of  the 
Toltecs,  far  more  refined  and  important  than  that  of  their 
neighbours  and  kindred,  the  Aztecs.  It  was  about  the 
end  of  the  twelfth  century  when  the  Texcocans  established 
themselves,  building  a splendid  capital  and  developing 
an  extensive  empire.  But  misfortune  fell  upon  them  as 
the  centuries  went  on.  Soon  after  the  beginning  of  the 
fifteenth  century  they  were  attacked  and  overwhelmed  by 
the  Tepanecas,  another  of  the  seven  kindred  tribes  : their 
city  reduced  and  their  monarch  assassinated.  But  there 
arose  a picturesque  figure,  the  saviour  of  his  country — 
Prince  Nezahualcoyotl,  son  of  the  dead  king.  The 
prince  passed  years  in  disguise,  as  a fugitive,  but  at 
length  was  permitted  to  return  to  the  capital,  where  he 
led  a life  of  study.  But  his  talents  aroused  the  jealousy  of 
the  Tepanec  usurper,  who  saw  a danger  of  the  people 
acclaiming  him  as  their  rightful  lord  and  throwing  off  the 
yoke  of  the  strangers.  Nezahualcoyotl  again  became  a 
fugitive,  having  escaped  with  his  life  by  a stratagem, 
disappearing  through  a cloud  of  incense  into  a secret 
passage.  But  as  the  years  went  on  the  Texcocans, 
goaded  to  revolt  by  grievous  taxation,  arose  : and  seizing 


THE  DAWN  OF  MEXICO 


29 


the  moment,  the  outlawed  prince  put  himself  at  the  head 
of  his  people  and  regained  his  rightful  position,  largely 
with  the  assistance  of  the  neighbouring  Mexicans  of 
Tenochtitlan. 

Then  followed  what  has  been  termed  the  golden  age  of 
Texcoco.  Its  art,  poets,  and  historians  became  renowned 
throughout  Anahuac,  and  its  collected  literature  was  the 
centre  of  historical  lore.  Indeed,  this  it  was  that  was  so 
perversely  destroyed  by  the  first  Archbishop  of  Mexico, 
Zumarraga,  after  the  Conquest — an  irremediable  loss. 
The  prince  or  emperor  was  a philosopher  and  a poet,  and 
he  has  left  some  remarkable  examples  of  his  philosophical 
prayers  to  the  “Unknown  God,”  in  whom  he  believed, 
abhorring  the  human  sacrifices  of  his  neighbours  the 
Aztecs.  He  has  been  termed  the  “ Solomon  of  Anahuac,” 
although  the  severe  code  of  laws  he  instituted  have  earned 
him  a harsher  name  in  addition. 

Under  this  regime  agriculture  prospered  exceedingly, 
and  a large  population  cultivated  all  the  available  ground, 
just  as  under  the  Incas  of  Peru  the  Andine  slopes  were 
terraced  and  cultivated.  Splendid  buildings  were  erected, 
and  a style  of  luxurious  living  inaugurated  somewhat 
after  the  fashion  of  Oriental  history,  and  the  descriptions 
of  the  magnificence  of  the  royal  appurtenances  fill  pages 
of  the  historians’  accounts.  Most  of  this  history  was 
written  by  the  famous  Ixtlilxochitl,  son  of  this  great 
emperor,  who  occupied  the  throne  at  the  time  of  the 
Conquest  and  became  an  ally  of  the  Spaniards  against 
the  Aztec.  It  is  upon  the  writings  of  this  prince-historian 
that  much  of  the  material  of  the  later  writers  of  the 
history  of  Mexico  and  the  Conquest  is  founded. 

In  the  construction  of  his  palaces  and  buildings  Neza- 
hualcoyotl  employed  vast  bodies  of  natives,  after  the 
manner  of  an  Egyptian  potentate  of  old.  Baths,  hang- 
ing-gardens, groves  of  cedar,  harems,  villas,  temples 
formed  the  beautiful  and  luxurious  Texcotzinco,  the 
prince's  residence,  as  described  by  its  historian.  To-day 
the  mounds  and  debris  of  sculptured  stone  which  formed 
the  place  scarcely  arrest  the  traveller’s  attention.  In  the 


30 


MEXICO 


midst  of  his  luxury  the  emperor  fell  a prey  to  a passion 
for  the  betrothed  of  one  of  his  subjects,  a beautiful 
maiden.  The  unhappy  individual  who  had  thus  become 
his  monarch’s  rival — he  was  a veteran  chief  in  the  army — 
was  needlessly  sent  on  a military  expedition,  where  he 
fell,  and  the  hand  of  his  promised  bride  was  free  for  the 
monarch’s  taking.  So  was  enacted  upon  these  high 
regions  of  Anahuac  a tragic  episode,  as  of  David  and 
Uriah,  to  the  blemish  of  an  otherwise  noble  name  and 
of  a mind  above  the  superstitions  of  his  time. 

“ Truly,  the  gods  which  I adore  ; idols  of  stone  and 
wood  : speak  not,  nor  feel,  neither  could  they  fashion  the 
beauty  of  the  heavens — the  sun,  the  moon,  and  the  stars 
. . . nor  yet  the  earth  and  the  streams,  the  trees  and 
the  plants  which  beautify  it.  Some  powerful,  hidden, 
and  unknown  God  must  be  the  Creator  of  the  universe, 
and  he  alone  can  console  me  in  my  affliction  or  still  the 
bitter  anguish  of  this  heart.”  1 So  spake  Nezahualcoyotl. 

Urged  probably  by  the  feelings  of  the  philosopher 
(whose  ponderings  on  the  infinite  may  occasion  him  more 
anguish  perhaps  than  the  ordinary  vicissitudes  of  life), 
the  monarch  raised  up  a temple  to  the  “ Unknown  God,” 
in  which  neither  images  nor  sacrifices  were  permitted. 

After  somewhat  more  than  half  a century  of  his  reign, 
and  at  a time  calculated  as  the  beginning  of  the  last 
quarter  of  the  fifteenth  century,  this  remarkable  philo- 
sopher-king died,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Neza- 
hualpilli,  who  in  a measure  followed  in  his  father’s 
footsteps.  But  he  also  passed  away,  his  life  having 
been  overshadowed  to  some  extent  by  the  singular  belief 
or  prediction  of  the  fall  of  his  people  in  the  coming  of 
the  white  man  from  the  East — a belief  which  influenced 
both  theTexcocans  and  the  Aztecs.  His  son  Ixtlilxochitl, 
the  historian  above  named,  was  in  power  at  the  time  of 
the  conquest  by  the  Spaniards,  but  he  hated  the  Aztecs 
with  a bitter  hatred  in  consequence  of  their  influence 
upon  his  people,  and  the  installing  by  the  machinations 

1 I have  translated  this  from  the  Spanish  of  Ixtlilxochitl  as  quoted  by 
Prescott. — C.  R.  E. 


i 


Till'.  I . VX1)  OK  THE  AZTEC  CONQUEST:  MAIZE  FIELDS  NEAR  ESI’EUANZA,  STATE  OK  I’UKBEA. 

[To  face  p.  31. 


THE  DAWN  OF  MEXICO 


31 


of  Montezuma  of  an  elder  brother  upon  the  throne, 
which  had  plunged  the  kingdom  into  civil  war.  This 
was  in  the  second  decade  of  the  sixteenth  century. 

The  Texcocans,  in  conjunction  with  yet  another  and 
smaller  people  living  on  the  west  side  of  the  lake  at 
Tlacopan,  formed  with  the  Aztecs  a confederation  or 
triple  alliance  of  three  republics,  by  which  they  agreed 
to  stand  together  against  all  comers,  and  to  divide  all 
territory  and  results  of  conquest  in  agreed  proportion. 
They  carried  on  war  and  annexation  around  them  for  a 
considerable  period,  extending  their  sway  far  beyond  the 
Valley  of  Mexico,  or  Anahuac,  which  formed  their  home, 
passing  the  Sierra  Madre  mountains  to  the  east,  until 
about  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century — under  Monte- 
zuma— the  land  and  tribes  acknowledging  their  sway 
reached  to  the  shores  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  To  the 
south  their  arms  and  influence  penetrated  into  what  are 
now  Guatemala  and  Nicaragua,  whilst  to  the  west  they 
exercised  sovereignty  to  the  shores  of  the  Pacific. 

These  conquered  territories  were  not  necessarily  of 
easy  subjugation.  On  the  contrary,  they  were  plenti- 
fully inhabited  by  races  of  warrior-peoples,  many  of 
them  with  strong  and  semi-civilised  social  and  military 
organisations.  The  analogy  between  this  confederation 
of  the  Aztecs  and  the  extending  area  of  their  dominion 
and  civilisation,  and  the  Incas  of  the  Titicaca  plateau  of 
Peru,  surrounded  on  all  sides  by  savage  warlike  tribes, 
presents  itself  to  the  observer  in  this  as  in  other  respects. 
Like  the  Incas,  the  Aztec  emperors 1 returned  from  cam- 
paign after  campaign  loaded  with  trophies  and  embar- 
rassed with  strings  of  captives  from  the  vanquished 
peoples  who  had  dared  oppose  this  powerful  con- 
federation. The  rich  tropical  regions  of  both  the  eastern 
and  western  slopes  of  the  tableland  of  Anahuac  thus 
paid  tribute  to  the  Aztecs,  as  well  as  the  boundless 
resources  of  the  south. 

But  not  all  the  nations  of  Anahuac  fell  under  the 
dominion  of  the  Aztecs.  Far  from  it.  The  spirits  of 

’ Both  these  nations  have  been  likened  to  the  Romans  in  this  respect. 


32 


MEXICO 


the  people  of  Tlascala  would  rise  from  their  graves  and 
protest  against  such  an  assertion  ! Tlascala  was  a brave 
and  warlike  little  republic  of  mountaineers — a kind  of 
Switzerland — who  inhabited  the  western  slopes  of  the 
Eastern  Sierra  Madre  and  the  eastern  part  of  the  plateau 
of  Anahuac,  under  the  shadow  of  the  mighty  Malinche, 
whose  snow-crowned  head  arises  on  the  eastern  confines 
of  the  tableland.  Tlascala,  indeed,  was  a thorn  in  the 
side  of  Montezuma  and  the  Aztecs.  The  latter  had 
demanded  that  the  little  republic  pay  homage  and 
tribute,  and  acknowledge  the  hegemony  of  the  dominant 
nation,  to  which  the  Tlascalans  made  reply,  “ Neither  our 
ancestors  nor  ourselves  ever  have  or  will  pay  tribute  to 
any  one.  Invade  us  if  you  can.  We  beat  you  once  and 
may  do  it  again  !”  or  words  to  that  effect,  as  recorded 
by  the  historians.  For  in  the  past  history  of  the 
Tiascalans — who  were  of  the  same  original  migratory 
family  as  the  Aztecs — a great  conflict  had  been  recorded, 
in  which  they  had  vanquished  their  arrogant  kindred. 

Deadly  strife  and  hatred  followed  this,  but  Tlascala 
withstood  all  attacks  from  without,  and,  moreover,  was 
strengthened  by  an  alliance  with  the  Otomies,  a warlike 
race  inhabiting  part  of  the  great  mesa  or  central  table- 
land north  of  Anahuac.  These  were  the  people  who  so 
grievously  harassed  the  Spaniards  after  the  Noclie  Triste 
and  against  whom  the  heroic  battle  of  Otumba  was 
fought.  Except  to  the  east,  whence  approach  was 
easy  from  the  coast,  the  territory  of  Tlascala  was  sur- 
rounded by  mountains,  and  this  natural  defence  was 
continued  by  the  building  of  an  extraordinary  wall  or 
fortification  at  the  pregnable  point.  Through  this  the 
Spaniards  passed  on  their  journey  of  invasion,  and, 
indeed,  its  ruins  remained  until  the  seventeenth  century. 
The  name  of  the  Tlascalans  well  deserves  to  be  written 
on  the  pages  of  the  history  of  primitive  Mexico,  for  it 
was  largely  due  to  their  alliance  with  the  Spaniards 
that  the  conquest  of  Mexico  by  Cortes  and  his  band 
was  rendered  possible. 

In  addition  to  these  various  and  petty  powers  and 


THE  DAWN  OF  MEXICO 


33 


independent  republics  upon  the  tableland  of  Anahuac 
and  its  slopes,  must  be  mentioned  that  of  Cholula,  a 
state  to  the  south  of  Tenochtitlan,  in  what  now  is  the 
State  of  Puebla.  This  region,  which  contains  the 
remarkable  mound  or  pyramid  bearing  its  name — 
Cholula — the  construction  of  which  is  ascribed  to  the 
Toltecs,  was,  with  its  people,  dominated  by  and  under 
tribute  to  the  Aztecs.  So  was  the  nation  of  the  Cem- 
poallas,  upon  the  Vera  Cruz  coast,  who  rendered  assist- 
ance to  the  landing  Conquistadores ; and,  indeed,  almost 
all  the  natives  of  that  vast  region  acknowledged  the 
sway  and  lived  in  awe  of  the  empire  of  Montezuma. 

It  is  seen  that  Mexico,  in  prehispanic  times,  was  fairly 
well  populated — comparatively  speaking,  of  course. 
Indeed,  at  the  present  time  there  are  ten  times  as 
many  Indians  in  that  part  of  North  America  which 
forms  modern  Mexico,  as  ever  existed  in  the  whole 
of  the  much  vaster  area  which  forms  the  United  States. 
The  inhabitants  of  Mexico  were  divided  into  two  main 
classes — those  living  under  a civilised  or  semi-civilised 
organisation,  such  as  the  Aztecs  and  others  already 
enumerated,  and  those  which  may  be  looked  upon  as 
savages.  These  latter  were  exceedingly  numerous,  and 
at  the  present  day  something  like  220  different  tribal 
names  have  been  enumerated.  This  serves  to  show  the 
wide  range  of  peoples  who  inhabited  the  land  before 
the  Conquest,  principally  as  clans,  or  gentiles,  as  in  South 
America  also. 

Having  seen,  thus,  what  were  the  anthropo-geographi- 
cal  conditions  of  primitive  Mexico,  we  may  cast  a brief 
glance  at  the  arts  and  institutions  of  these  semi-civilised 
peoples.  Their  buildings — most  indelible  records  of 
these  civilisations — cover  a considerable  range  of  terri- 
tory, as  has  been  observed  : yet  the  antiquities  of  less 
important  nature  cover  one  very  much  greater.  The 
true  stone  edifices,  the  real  mural  remains,  are,  how- 
ever, confined  to  certain  limits — between  the  16th  and 
22nd  parallel  of  north  latitude — that  is  to  say,  the 
southern  half  of  Mexico.  Roughly,  these  buildings 

4 


34 


MEXICO 


may  be  divided  into  three  classes — adobe,  or  sun-dried 
earthen  brick,  unshaped  stone  and  mortar,  and  cut  and 
carved  stone.  In  some  cases  a combination  of  these 
was  used  in  the  same  structure.  The  best  elements  of 
construction  do  not  seem  to  have  been  used.  Domes 
and  arches  were  not  known  to  these  builders,  although 
they  had  a system  of  corbelling-out  over  openings, 
which,  in  the  case  of  the  Maya  “ arch,”  approximates 
thereto.  They  also  used  lintels  of  stone  and  wood,  and 
these  last  were  the  weak  points,  and  their  decaying  has 
sometimes  brought  down  part  of  the  fapade.  The  work 
of  the  sculptor  is  crude,  like  that  of  the  Incas  of  Peru, 
of  which  it  reminds  the  traveller  in  some  cases,  but 
shows  signs  of  evolving  power  and  a sense  of  the 
beautiful,  as  has  been  averred  by  the  most  learned 
antiquarians  who  have  studied  it.  It  is  held  that  there 
were  several  schools  of  architecture  represented. 

The  various  kinds  of  structures  and  relics  found 
throughout  the  country  include  pyramids,  temples, 
tombs,  causeways,  statues,  fortifications,  terraced  hills, 
rock-sculpture,  idols,  painted  caves,  calendar  stones, 
sacrificial  stones,  habitations,  canals,  pottery,  mummies, 
cenotes,  or  wells,  &c.  The  northernmost  point  where  any 
monument  in  stone  is  encountered  is  at  Quemada,  in  the 
State  of  Zacatecas,  which  seems  to  mark  the  limit  of 
the  stronger  civilisation  of  Southern  Mexico,  in  contrast 
to  the  less  virile  civilisation  which  seems  to  be  indicated 
by  the  clay  and  adobe  structures  of  the  northern  part  of 
Mexico  and  of  the  adjoining  territory  embodied  at  the 
present  day  in  Arizona,  California,  and  New  Mexico, 
beyond  the  Rio  Grande. 

But  once  more  we  ask,  “ Where  did  these  people 
come  from  originally  ? ” It  has  been  said  that  the 
origin  of  the  people  of  a continent  belongs  not  to  the 
realm  of  history  but  of  philosophy.  Well  may  it  be  so, 
but  we  are  not  content.  What  was  the  origin  of  the  first 
peoples  of  the  Americas,  and  where  did  the  principle  of 
their  barbaric  civilisation  come  from  ? There  were  the 
fables  of  the  lost  continent  of  Atlantis — of  which,  geologi- 


PREHISTORIC  MEXICO  : RUINS  OF  EL  FOI.OC  AT  CHICHEN-YTZA,  YUCATAN. 


THE  DAWN  OF  MEXICO 


35 


cally,  part  of  North  America  is  a portion — to  be  con- 
sidered : and  perchance,  so  thought  the  earlier  thinkers, 
these  peoples,  remnants  of  its  population.  But  the 
generally  accepted  theory  assigns  Eastern  Asia  as  the 
source,  and  analogies  are  adduced  in  architecture,  customs, 
religions,  physiognomy,  and  a multitude  of  conditions.  As 
to  language,  careful  study  has  shown,  on  the  other  hand, 
that  none  of  the  numerous  indigenous  tongues  of  the 
present-day  Mexican  aborigines  bear  any  resemblance 
whatever  to  Asiatic  tongues,  except  that  some  like- 
ness between  Otomie  and  Chinese  is  traced  : whilst 
some  points  of  similarity  are  adduced  with  the  speech  of 
the  Esquimaux.  Last  century  an  Englishman — Lord 
Kingsborough — spent  a fortune  in  endeavouring  to  prove 
the  theory,  which  had  been  advanced  a hundred  years 
earlier,  that  these  emigrating  tribes  of  the  Mexican  plateau 
were  those  lost  ten  of  Israel ! And  he  published  a magnifi- 
cent work,  reproducing  the  best  examples  of  their  picture- 
writing, to  this  end.  Indeed,  in  earlier  times,  analogies 
have  run  riot  in  attempts  to  prove  a common  origin  for 
fables  and  for  real  incidents,  with  those  of  Biblical 
narrative.  Among  the  prehistoric  civilisations  of  the 
Americas — Mexico  and  Peru — some  of  these  analogies 
are  remarkable,  and  might  well  give  rise  to  such  specula- 
tion ; among  them  being  the  stories  of  the  Deluge, 
and  of  a virgin  birth  for  a leader  or  redeemer  of  men. 

Further  similarities  are  adduced  in  matters  relating  to 
the  system  of  chronology — that  used  by  the  Aztecs  having 
analogy  to  that  of  the  Mongol  family,  and  to  some  extent 
of  the  Persians  and  Egyptians.  Indeed,  in  the  archi- 
tecture of  these  prehistoric  American  ruins  resemblance 
is  traced  to  Egypt,  as  well  as  similarity  in  other  matters  ; 
and  this  more  strongly  perhaps  in  Peru  than  in  Mexico. 
In  general  terms  it  may  be  said  that  many  points  of  pre- 
historic Mexican  civilisation  suggest  analogy  with  Egypt 
and  with  Hindustan,  and  it  has  been  said  that,  from  his 
head-dress  to  his  sandalled  feet,  the  native  Mexican  is 
Hispano-Egyptian.  But  be  it  as  it  may,  their  civilisation 
seems  to  have  come  from  the  West,  not  from  the  East. 


36 


MEXICO 


These  aboriginal  people  and  their  attributes  have  nothing 
in  common  with  Europeans  or  negroes,  whilst  they  are 
not  unlike  Asiatics.  I have  often  been  surprised  by  the 
strong  “Japanese”  or  Mongol  character  in  the  Mexican 
face.  How  and  when  such  prehistoric  immigrants  came, 
whether  by  the  approaching  shores  of  Behring  Straits, 
whether  in  that  geological  time  when  land  connection 
between  North  America  and  Asia  was  intact,  is  buried  in 
oblivion.  Beyond  these  theories  there  still  remains  that  of 
an  autocthonous  origin  ; and  who  shall  yet  affirm  that  both 
the  people  and  their  civilisation  may  not  have’  sprung 
and  evolved  upon  the  soil  of  the  world  which  we  call 
new  ? Time  and  advancing  knowledge  may  yet  reveal 
these  secrets. 


CHAPTER  III 

THE  STRANGE  CITIES  OF  EARLY  MEXICO 


Principal  prehistoric  monuments — Aztec  capital  of  Tenochtitlan — Pyra- 
mids of  Teotihuacan  — Toltec  sun-god  — Pyramid  of  Cholula  — 
Pyramids  of  Monte  Alban — Ruins  of  Mitla — Remarkable  monoliths 
and  sculpture  — Beautiful  prehistoric  stone-masonry  — Ruins  of 
Palenque — Temple  of  the  Sun,  and  others — Stone  vault  construc- 
tion — Tropical  vegetation  — Ruins  of  Yucatan  — Maya  temples  — 
Architectural  skill — Temples  of  Chichen-Ytza — Barbaric  sculpture — 
Effect  of  geology  on  building — The  Aztec  civilisation — Land  and 
social  laws — Slavery — Taxes,  products,  roads,  couriers — Analogy 
with  Peru — Aztec  homes  and  industries — War,  human  sacrifice, 
cannibalism  — History,  hieroglyphics,  picture-writing  — Irrigation, 
agriculture,  products — Mining,  sculpture,  pottery — Currency  and 
commerce — Social  system — Advent  of  the  white  man. 

The  most  remarkable  of  the  remaining  monuments  in 
stone  of  the  peoples  who  successively  or  contempor- 
aneously inhabited  Mexico,  are  those  well-defined  and 
fairly  well-known  groups  of  ruins  scattered  at  wide 
distances  apart  in  the  southern  and  south-eastern  part 
of  Mexican  territory.  The  principal  of  these  are  : 
Teotihuacan,  at  Texcoco,  in  the  Valley  of  Mexico ; 
Cholula,  in  the  State  of  Puebla;  Monte  Alban  and 
Mitla,  in  the  State  of  Oaxaca  ; Palenque,  in  the  State 
of  Chiapas  ; Uxmal  and  Chichen-Ytza,  in  the  peninsula 
of  Yucatan. 

Of  the  Aztec  city  of  Tenochtitlan,  or  Mexico,  but  little 
of  antiquity  remains,  as,  according  to  the  historian  of  the 
Conquest,  the  place  was  almost  entirely  razed  to  the  ground 
by  Cortes.  It  is  probable,  however,  that  enduring  stone 
edifices  formed  a much  less  considerable  part  of  this 

37 


38 


MEXICO 


city  than  has  been  supposed.  Nevertheless,  modern 
excavations  continually  lay  bare  portions  of  Aztec 
masonry,  as  well  as  sculptured  monoliths.  A short  time 
ago  a sculptured  tiger,  weighing  eight  tons,  was  un- 
earthed and  deposited  in  the  museum  in  the  capital. 
The  principal  building  of  the  Aztec  city  was  the  great 
Teocalli,  upon  whose  site  the  existing  cathedral  was  built. 
This  huge  truncated  pyramid  has  been  described  already. 
It  was  surrounded  by  a great  wall,  upon  the  cornice  of 
which  huge  carved  stone  serpents  and  tigers  were  the 
emblematic  ornaments.  From  this  wall  four  gates 
opened  on  to  the  four  main  streets,  which  radiated 
away  towards  the  cardinal  points  of  the  compass.  Its 
dimensions  are  given  as  365  feet  long  by  300  feet  wide 
at  the  base,  whilst  the  summit-platform  was  raised  more 
than  150  feet  above  the  level  of  the  streets  and  square. 
Here  was  set  the  great  image  of  the  Aztec  war-god,  the 
idol  of  the  abominable  Huitzilopochtli  which  Cortes  and 
his  men,  after  their  frightful  hand-to-hand  struggle 
with  the  Aztecs  on  this  giddy  platform,  tumbled  down  the 
face  of  the  pyramid  into  the  streets  below,  among  the 
astonished  Indians.  The  grandeur,  architecturally,  of 
the  ancient  City  of  Mexico  has  probably  been  some- 
what exaggerated  by  the  Conquistadores  and  subsequent 
chroniclers,  whose  enthusiasm  sometimes  ran  riot. 

The  ruins  of  Teotihuacan  are  situated  in  the  north- 
eastern part  of  the  valley  of  Mexico,  some  miles  from  the 
shores  of  Lake  Texcoco  and  twenty-five  miles  from  the 
modern  City  of  Mexico.  They  are  generally  ascribed  to 
the  Toltecs,  or,  at  any  rate,  to  a civilised  nation  greatly 
previous  to  the  Aztecs  ; for  the  ruins  were  abandoned  and 
their  origin  unknown  when  these  people  arrived.  Cortes 
and  his  Spaniards,  defeated  and  fleeing  after  the  terrible 
struggle  of  the  Noche  Triste,  passed  near  to  the  great 
earth  pyramids  of  the  Sun  and  the  Moon,  which  are  the 
main  structures  of  Teotihuacan  ; but  even  at  that  time 
they  were — as  they  are  to-day — mere  mounds  of  earth,  in 
which  the  pyramidal  form  has  been  partly  obliterated  by 
the  action  of  time. 


il 


PREHISTORIC  MEXICO  : THE  PYRAMID  OF  THE  SUN  AT  TEOTIHUACAX,  IN  THE  VALLEY  OF  MEXICO, 

SEEN  FROM  THE  PYRAMID  OF  THE  MOON. 


THE  STRANGE  CITIES 


39 


The  very  extensive  mounds  and  remains  which  con- 
stitute Teotihuacan  are  of  numerous  pyramids,  and  some 
ruined  walls  which  have  been  excavated  of  recent  years. 
All  of  these  are  formed  of  adobe  and  irregular  pieces  of 
the  lava  of  which  the  adjoining  hills  are  composed. 
Rude  carved  monoliths  of  deities  have,  however,  been 
recovered  from  the  debris.  The  main  features  of  the 
ruins  are,  first,  the  “ Pyramid  of  the  Sun,”  a huge  mound 
which  forms  the  most  colossal  structure  of  prehistoric 
man  in  America.  It  measures,  approximately,  at  its  base 
— for  its  outlines  are  so  indefined  that  no  exact  form  can 
be  adduced — some  700  feet  on  each  side,  rising  upwards 
in  the  form  of  a truncated  pyramid  rather  less  than  200  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  plain.  Next,  the  “ Pyramid  of  the 
Moon,”  a similar  but  smaller  structure — about  500  feet  at 
base — distant  from  the  first  some  thousands  of  yards  along 
a strange  road  or  path  across  the  plain,  known  as  Micoatl, 
or  the  “ Path  of  the  Dead,”  some  two  miles  in  length. 
From  the  summit  of  the  “ Pyramid  of  the  Moon  ” the 
beholder  looks  down  into  the  great  courtyard  of  an 
adjoining  group  of  ruins  ; thence  his  eye  travels  along 
this  pathway  to  where  the  huge  “ Pyramid  of  the  Sun  ’’ 
arises,  far  off,  on  its  left-hand  side.  Between  these  and 
indeed  beyond  them,  and  bordering  on  the  “ Path  of 
the  Dead  ” — probably  so  called  in  relation  to  human 
sacrifice — are  numerous  other  mounds,  which  were 
formerly  pyramids  of  similar  character,  but  of  much 
less  magnitude.  Probably,  in  ages  past,  they  were  all 
crowned  by  temples,  and  ascended  by  staircases  and 
terraces — evidences  of  which,  indeed,  still  remain — 
whilst  the  slopes  were  probably  covered  with  stone 
and  stucco.  It  is  stated  that  upon  the  high  summit 
of  the  great  pyramid — that  dedicated  to  Tonatiuh,  the 
sun — a huge  stone  statue  of  this  deity  was  placed,  and 
that  a plate  of  polished  gold  upon  its  front  reflected  back 
the  first  rays  of  the  rising  sun.  The  name  Teotihuacan 
signifies  the  “ house  of  the  gods.”  Doubtless  it  was,  in 
unknown  centuries  past,  the  centre  of  a thriving  civilisation 
and  busy  and  extensive  agricultural  population.  To-day 


40 


MEXICO 


the  great  pyramid  casts  its  shadow  toward  a small  village 
of  jacales,  upon  a semi-arid  plain. 

The  pyramid  of  Cholula  is  of  truncated  form,  like  most 
of  these  numerous  structures.  Its  height  is  200  feet  and 
its  base  measures  1,440  feet,  which  is  greater  than  that  of 
the  pyramid  of  Cheops,  and  it  forms  the  oldest  and  largest 
teocalli  in  Mexico.  The  presiding  deity  of  this  “house 
of  God  ” was  the  mysterious  Quetzacoatl.  In  company 
with  Teotihuacan  at  Texcoco,  and  Papantla,  in  the  State 
of  Vera  Cruz,  Cholula  is  ascribed  to  the  Toltecs.  The 
elevation  above  sea-level  of  the  site  of  this  structure  is 
7,500  feet,  and  at  the  time  of  Cortes  the  surrounding 
town  is  said  to  have  contained  a population  of  150,000 
inhabitants.  Its  summit  is  more  than  an  acre  in  exten- 
sion, and  although  partly  obliterated  and  overgrown,  the 
pyramid  is  crowned  to-day  with  a Roman  Catholic  church 
of  Spanish-American  type.  As  has  been  described,  these 
Teocallis  were  for  purposes  of  religious  rite  and  sacrifice, 
and  upon  their  upper  platforms  were  the  sanctuaries, 
idols,  and  never-extinguished  sacred  fire,  all  reached  by 
exterior  staircases  up  the  slope  of  the  structure. 

The  State  of  Oaxaca — and  part  of  the  adjoining  State 
of  Guerrero — is  remarkable  for  the  numerous  ruins  of 
prehistoric  inhabitants  scattered  upon  its  ridges  and 
mountain  crests.  Terraces,  pyramids,  and  walls  crown 
the  summits  and  extend  down  the  slopes,  actually 
clashing  in  some  cases  with  the  natural  profiles  of  the 
hills,  and  causing  the  natural  and  artificial  to  mingle 
in  a strange,  and  at  first  glance,  scarcely  distinguishable 
blend.  These  numerous  ruins,  and  the  smallcultivated 
terraced  patches  on  the  almost  inaccessible  hill  slopes, 
bring  to  mind  the  similar  constructions  of  the  old  ruins 
and  the  singular  “andenes”  of  the  Andes  of  Peru.1 
They  point  to  a busy  and  numerous  population  in 
former  times,  and  in  some  cases  the  topography  of 
whole  mountain  slopes  has  been  remodelled  by  the 
hand  of  prehistoric  man.  No  place  was  too  inacces- 
sible, and  terrace  and  temple  crown  the  Andine 
1 See  my  book,  “ The  Andes  and  the  Amazon.” 


1 


PREHISTORIC  MEXICO:  RUIXS  OP  MI  TLA  ; FACADE  OF  THE  HALL  OF  THE  COLUMNS. 


the  Strange  cities 


41 


summits  in  Peru  at  more  than  16,600  feet  elevation 
above  sea-level,  and  in  Mexico  in  similar  /or  greater 
profusion,  but  at  less  altitude. 

Among  the  remarkable  ruins  of  this-  nature,  in  Oaxaca, 
are  those  of  Monte  Alban,  near  the  capital  city  of 
Oaxaca.  Here  are  entire  crests  of  mountains,  cut  away 
into  terraces,  quadrangles,  and  courts,  and  their  great 
extent  and  strange  environment  create  a sense  of 
awe  and  amazement  ip  the  beholder.  The  utter 
abandonment  and  sense  of  solitude  ; the  high  ridges, 
thousands  of  feet  above  the  valley,  « which,  dim  and 
distant'  through  the  atmospheric  haze,  glimmers  below  ; 
the  vast  expanse  of  sky  and  landscape,  without  a sound 
or  touch  of  life,  invests  the  remains  of  those  seemingly 
unreal  or  fairy  cities  of  prehistoric  man  with  a sense 
of  mystery  and  unfathomed  time.  Pyramid  after 
pyramid,  terrace  after  terrace,  the  latter  from  500  to 
1,000  feet  in  length,  extend  along  the  ridge  of  the 
Alban  hill — the  numerous  truncated  pyramids  rising, 
like  the  playthings  of  some  prehistoric  giant,  from  the 
levelled  places.  The  beholder  may  imagine  the  chain  of 
Teocallis  which  crowned  them,  lighted  up  afinight  by  the 
glare  of  the  never-extinguished  sacred  fires,  as  the  throng- 
ing multitude  of  the  great  population  of  those  barbaric 
peoples  of  pre-Columbian  Mexico  pressed  along  the 
streets  below.  He  may  fill  in,  in  his  mind’s  eye,  the 
picture,  fanciful  and  unreal,  as  if  borrowed  from  the  pages 
of  some  Eastern  romance,  were  it  not  that  the  actual 
vestiges  of  that  time  are  before  him.  Vast  labour — 
probably  directed  by  autocratic  mandate  without  heed  of 
native  life,  and  working  throughout  generations — must 
have  been  employed  to  collect  and  raise  up  in  place  the 
stone,  and  earth,  and  adobe  material  of  these  pyramids, 
and  to  make  the  great  levellings  and  excavations  upon 
these  inaccessible  summits.  They  were  cities,  as  well 
as  mere  places  of  religious  ceremony,  and  a large  number 
of  people  must  have  dwelt  in  these  “ mansions  in  the 
skies.” 

In  the  same  State  of  Oaxaca  are  the  famous  ruins 


42 


MEXICO 


of  Mitla,  pride  of  the  archaeology  of  Mexico,  situated 
some  thirty  miles  from  the  state  capital  of  Oaxaca. 
These  famous  ruins  of  Mitla  are  of  a different  character 
to  the  pyramidal  structures  of  Monte  Alban,  although 
they  have  a low  pyramidal  base  and  were  built  mainly 
for  religious  purposes,  it  is  probable,  like  most  of 
these  prehistoric  monuments.  They  are  situated  in 
an  inhabited  valley,  and  the  ruins  consist  of  five  main 
groups,  some  of  which  are  exceedingly  well  preserved. 
Indeed,  whilst  the  ruins  of  Mitla  are  by  no  means 
so  extensive  as  others  described,  they  are  in  the  best 
state  of  preservation  of  any  in  the  country.  And 
this  is  due  both  to  their  method  of  construction  and 
to  their  environment;  for,  unlike  the  low,  tropical  regions 
of  Chiapas  and  Yucatan,  this  district  is  at  a considerable 
altitude  above  sea-level.  The  great  “ palaces  " or  halls 
which  these  groups  form,  occupy  an  area  of  about 
i, 800  feet  from  north  to  south,  by  1,200  feet  from  east  to 
west.  The  principal  groups  are  known  as  the  “ Hall  of 
the  Monoliths  or  Columns,”  the  “ Catholic  group,” 
and  the  “Arroyo  group.”  Like  some  of  the  pyramids 
throughout  Mexico,  these  are  oriented,  in  this  case 
the  variation  being  but  a few  degrees  from  the  cardinal 
points  of  the  compass.  The  remarkable  Hall  of  the 
Monoliths  is  a building  some  125  feet  long  by  25  feet 
wide,  with  a row  of  great  stone  columns  running  down 
the  centre.  These  columns  are  cut  from  a single  piece 
of  trachyte,  15  feet  in  height,  and  3 feet  in  diameter 
at  the  base,  tapering  somewhat  upwards,  but  of  almost 
cylindrical  form,  without  pedestal  or  capital.  Whilst 
these  columns  are  intact,  the  roof,  which  was  doubtless 
supported  on  beams  resting  on  the  column,  is  gone. 
The  weight  of  these  monoliths  is  calculated  at  five  or  six 
tons,  and  they  were  cut  from  quarries  in  the  trachyte 
rock  of  the  mountains  some  five  miles  away,  and  more 
than  1,000  feet  above  the  site  of  Mitla.  In  this  quarry 
half-cut  blocks  for  columns  and  lintels  are  still  in 
place.  Food  for  thought,  even  for  the  modern  engineer, 
is  this  work. 


PREHISTORIC  MEXICO  : RUINS  OF  MIT  LA  J HALL  OF  THE  MONOLITHS  OR  COLUMNS, 


THE  STRANGE  CITIES 


43 


But  the  monolithic  columns  here  are  by  no  means 
the  only  remarkable  features  of  the  masonry  of  Mitla. 
The  interior  and  exterior  of  these  great  halls  are  carved 
with  a beautifully  executed  geometrical  design — the 
Greek  pattern  enclosed  in  a quadrilateral,  the  blocks 
upon  which  they  are  cut  being  exactly  fitted  and 
adjusted  in  their  places  with  scarcely  visible  joints. 
Indeed,  at  Mitla,  as  in  other  places  in  the  Americas — 
Huanuco  1 and  Cuzco,  in  Peru,  for  example — it  seems 
to  have  been  deemed  an  essential  andl  peculiar  art  to 
adjust  great  blocks  of  stone  with  so  great  a nicety  that  no 
mortar  was  necessary  and  the  joints  almost  invisible. 
This,  of  course,  necessitated  infinite  time  and  patience — 
both  of  which  were  at  the  disposal  of  these  prehistoric 
builders.  It  is  to  be  recollected,  in  this  connection, 
that  each  stone  was  generally  an  individual  and  not 
a counterpart,  and  so  often  had  to  be  fitted  to  its 
fellows  in  the  wall,  by  the  laborious  method  of  con- 
tinually placing  and  removing.  The  remarkable  and 
intricate  nature  of  the  mosaics  and  carved  blocks  at 
Mitla  call  forth  the  admiration  of  the  observer.  A vast 
number  of  separate  stones  have  been  employed,  each 
requiring  its  respective  forming,  shaping,  and  placing, 
and  one  of  the  halls  alone  shows  more  than  13,000 
such  stones  in  its  walls.  The  stone  doorways  to 
these  halls  are  chaste,  massive,  and  effective.  The 
stone  lintels  in  some  cases  are  more  than  12  feet  long, 
and  nearly  4 feet  thick.  Indeed,  there  exist  at  Mitla 
nearly  a hundred  examples  of  great  monoliths,  whether 
columns,  lintels,  or  roof  stones,  some  weighing  as 
much  as  15  tons,  and  up  to  20  feet  in  length. 

The  earliest  account  of  the  ruins  of  Mitla,  by  Francisco 
de  Burgoa,  a priest  of  Oaxaca,  who  visited  them  in 
1674,  states  that  these  beautiful  halls  were  the  scene, 
in  prehistoric  times,  of  the  most  diabolical  rites.  To- 
day the  ruins  are  surrounded  by  a rude  native  popula- 
tion, most  of  whom  dwell  in  wretched  jacales,  in  a 
waterless  and  sun-beat  valley  — an  environment  in 

1 See  the  “ Andes  and  the  Amazon.” 


44 


MEXICO 


striking  contrast  to  the  antique  splendour  of  these 
halls  of  the  earlier  occupiers  of  the  land. 

The  ruins  of  Palenque,  in  the  State  of  Chiapas,  are 
situated  at  the  base  of  the  picturesque  foothills  of 
Tumbala,  which  border  upon  Guatemala,  in  a true 
tropical  environment  of  luxuriant  forest  and  brimming 
streams.  From  this  setting  the  ruined  temples  and 
pyramids  stand  forth  like  a vision  of  a charmed  or 
fabled  story.  Dense  tropical  undergrowth  covers  them, 
and  grows  again  as  soon  as  explorers,  who  have  removed 
portions  of  Nature's  persistent  covering,  leave  the  place. 
The  main  structures  take  the  form  of  great  truncated 
pyramids  built  up  of  earth,  stones,  and  masonry,  with 
temples  and  palaces  of  masonry  upon  their  summits. 
Twelve  of  these  pyramids  have  been  discovered  so  far, 
and  eight  are  crowned  by  buildings,  the  principal  of 
which  are  known  respectively  as,  the  “Temple  of  the  Sun,” 
the  “Temple  of  the  Cross,"  “Temple  of  the  Inscriptions,” 
and  the  extensive  group  of  ruins  termed  “ The  Palace." 
These  temples  and  palaces  consist  of  massive  masonry 
walls,  partly  of  roughly-shaped  blocks,  and  partly  of 
cut-and-carved  stone,  and  stucco  sculpture,  with 
numerous  doorways  or  openings  on  to  the  platform 
of  the  pyramid-summit.  The  interior  of  the  buildings 
is  a singular  vault-like  construction,  covered  with 
roofs  of  masonry  carried  by  the  vaulting.  These 
vaults,  however,  do  not  embody  the  principle  of  the 
arch,  but  rather  of  the  off-set,  or  lean-to,  and  are  very 
high  in  proportion  to  their  width.  From  the  palace 
group  arises  a square  tower  of  four  storeys,  about  40 
feet  in  height,  forming  the  centre  of  the  group  of 
extensive  courts,  buildings,  and  fapades  which  sur- 
round it,  all  built  upon  the  summit  of  a pyramid 
some  200  feet  square.  As  in  the  Yucatan  structures, 
the  lintels  over  the  doorway-openings  in  the  walls  were 
of  wood,  and  their  decay  has  largely  been  the  cause 
of  the  fapades  having  fallen  into  ruins,  in  many  places. 
There  are  various  interior  staircases  to  these  buildings, 
and  the  huge  and  unique  reliefs  of  human  figures  are 


THE  STRANGE  CITIES 


45 


a remarkable  feature  of  the  interior.  The  beautiful 
figure  known  as  the  Beau  Relief  is  compared  to  the 
relief  sculptures  of  Babylon  and  Egypt.  The  material 
of  construction  was  limestone,  generally  in  unshaped 
blocks,  not  laid  in  regular  courses,  but  with  large 
quantities  of  mortar  and  stucco.  The  walls  were 
lavishly  painted  and  coloured.  Indeed,  the  nature  of 
the  building  has  doubtless  obeyed  the  character  of 
the  stone,  which  does  not  lend  itself  to  careful  cutting 
and  carving  like  the  easily-worked  trachyte  of  Mitla. 
A very  noteworthy  structure  of  this  prehistoric  city, 
is  the  subterranean  passage-way  for  the  stream,  which 
passes  down  the  valley  upon  whose  slopes  the  ruins 
of  Palenque  are  situated.  This,  of  stone-vaulted  con- 
struction, after  the  manner  before  described,  is  somewhat 
less  than  1,000  feet  long,  and  the  stream  still  flows 
through  a portion  of  it.  On  every  hand  the  extra- 
ordinary vigour  of  the  tropical  forest  is  evident,  and 
the  dense  growth  of  trees,  vines,  and  herbs  which  cover 
valley,  pyramid,  walls,  and  roofs,  attest  the  power  of  the 
vegetable  world. 

The  prehistoric  structures  of  Yucatan — among  the 
principal  of  which  are  those  of  Uxmal  and  Chichen-Ytza 
— are  exceedingly  numerous.  Indeed,  the  traveller  in 
this  territory  of  the  Mayas  is  rarely  out  of  sight  of 
crumbling  pyramid  or  temple,  as  he  traverses  the  dense 
forests  of  these  curious  flat  and  streamless  limestone 
regions.  Whilst  most  of  these  edifices  were  for  purposes 
of  religious  ceremonial,  the  object  of  many  of  them  can 
scarcely  be  conjectured.  Their  builders  appear  to  have 
been  people  of  a peaceful  nature,  and  their  dwellings  do 
not  generally  bear  evidence  of  defensive  design.  The 
architectural  skill  of  the  Mayas  must  have  been  of  a very 
high  order.  Among  the  buildings  which  exist  some  are 
nearly  perfect  units  of  design,  and  seem  almost  to  argue 
the  use  of  “working  drawings,”  as  the  plan  and  detail 
must  have  been  perfected  as  a whole  before  the  building 
was  begun.  This  architectural  skill  of  conception,  how- 
ever, has  been  common  in  many  countries.  Some  of  the 


46 


MEXICO 


buildings  were  in  use  when  Cortes  landed  and  fought  on 
the  shores  of  Yucatan,  nearly  four  hundred  years  ago  ; 
nevertheless,  they  are  in  a remarkable  state  of  preserva- 
tion, notwithstanding  the  ravages  both  of  Nature  and  of 
man,  tending  towards  their  destruction  ; for  on  the  one 
hand,  the  roots  of  trees  and  profuse  vegetation  of  a 
tropical  region  are  efficient  levers  in  the  throwing  down 
of  the  masonry,  and  on  the  other,  the  vandal  ignorance 
of  the  surrounding  inhabitants  of  the  modern  towns  of 
the  region  permits  them  to  make  use  of  the  stones  in 
their  own  walls. 

The  ruins  of  Chichen-Ytza,  the  prehistoric  city  in 
the  northern  part  of  Yucatan,  are  among  the  most 
important  and  best  preserved  of  any  of  the  stone 
structures  of  the  Americas.  The  ruins  are  grouped 
around  two  great  natural  wells,  the  cenotes,  famous  in 
this  remarkable  peninsula.  Indeed,  the  derivation  of 
the  name  of  the  old  city  is  from  Maya  words  meaning 
the  “ Mouth  of  the  Well,”  and  it  serves  to  show  the  value 
in  which  these  singular  water-supplies  were  held  in  this 
riverless  region  of  Yucatan.  Among  the  most  interest- 
ing of  the  structures  of  Chichen  and  Uxmal  is  that  of 
the  buildings  known  as  El  Foloc,  or  “the  Church.” 
Another  is  that  known  as  the  “ House  of  the  Nuns,”  and 
yet  another  the  “ Temple  of  the  Tigers,”  which  latter 
shows  a sculptured  procession  of  tigers  or  lynxes. 
Again,  “ the  Castle  ” is  remarkable,  set  upon  a pyramid 
rising  more  than  ioo  feet  above  the  plain.  The 
“Governor’s  Palace,”  the  “House  of  the  Pigeons,”  and 
“ House  of  the  Turtles,”  are  others  of  these  remarkable 
structures. 

The  profuse  and  extraordinary,  yet  barbaric-appearing 
sculpture  of  the  fapades  and  interiors  of  these  buildings 
arrests  the  observer’s  attention,  and,  indeed,  fills  him 
with  amazement,  as  does  their  construction  in  general. 
What  instruments  of  precision  did  a rude  people  possess 
who  could  raise  such  walls,  angles,  monoliths,  true  and 
plumb  as  the  work  of  the  mason  of  to-day  ? 

It  would  be  beyond  the  scope  of  this  work  to  enter 


THE  STRANGE  CITIES 


47 


more  fully  into  the  details  of  these  ruins.  They  have 
been  minutely  examined  and  described  by  famous 
archaeologists,  who  have  devoted  much  time  thereto, 
and  the  student  may  be  referred  to  their  works.  The 
foregoing  is  but  a sketch,  barely  touching  upon  the 
extensive  and  beautiful  handwork  in  stone  of  the  ancient 
dwellers  of  this  land.  Indeed,  the  traveller  may  behold 
them  for  himself,  without  great  risk  or  difficulty.  He 
will  observe  them  with  admiration.  Pyramids  rising 
from  the  plains  or  forest-seas  which  surround  them  ; 
strange  halls  where  unknown  people  dwelt  ; great  cities 
where  busy  races  lived.  The  character  of  the  various 
groups  of  ruins  throughout  the  land  shows  the 
effect  that  the  geology  of  the  respective  regions  has  had 
upon  the  stone-masonry  of  these  prehistoric  builders. 
As  has  been  shown,  the  beautiful  trachyte  of  Mitla, 
which,  whilst  it  is  tough  and  enduring,  is  soft,  and  lends 
itself  readily  to  the  chisel.  The  result  has  been  handed 
down  in  the  beautiful  and  exact  sculpture  of  the  blocks 
and  grecques  of  the  fapades  of  these  palaces : work 
which  could  not  have  been  performed  in  a more 
refractory  stone.  Not  a great  distance  away  are  the 
Monte  Alban  ruins,  as  described,  which,  although 
extensive  and  remarkable,  show  nothing  of  exact  and 
intricate  work  in  stone-shaping.  The  hard  or  silicious 
rocks  which  form  the  immediate  region,  and  the  quartzite 
and  crystalline  limestone,  did  not  lend  themselves, 
either  in  the  quarry  or  under  the  chisel,  to  such  work. 
In  Chiapas,  the  unshaped  and  uncoursed  masonry  of 
Palenque  is  formed  of  a hard,  brittle  limestone,  scarcely 
capable  of  being  worked  to  faces.  No  invisible 
joints,  such  as  are  the  beauty  of  some  of  the  ancient 
stone  structures  of  the  Americas — North  and  South — 
were  possible,  and  mortar  and  stucco  were  freely 
employed.  Very  different,  however,  was  the  limestone 
used  in  Yucatan.  It  was  easily  quarried  from  its  bed, 
and  was  of  such  a texture  as  lent  itself  to  the  profuse  and 
beautiful  sculpture  of  those  Maya  cities  of  long  ago. 
Again,  the  great  pyramidal  structures  of  Teotihuacan  and 


48 


MEXICO 


surrounding  ruins  of  the  Toltec  civilisation,  had  little  for 
their  composition  but  lavas  of  basaltic  nature,  which  did 
not  possess  a character  adaptable  for  exact  stone-shaping. 
Thus  it  is  seen  how  largely  the  existence,  or  non-existence, 
of  freestone  influenced  the  character  of  these  prehistoric 
structures. 

Of  exceeding  interest  are  these  old  buildings  of  the 
early  Mexicans,  whether  upon  the  open  plains  of  the 
uplands,  or  buried  in  the  glades  of  the  tropical  forests. 
There  they  arise,  great  palace  walls  where  sculptured 
tigers  and  serpents,  and  strange  designs,  run  in  barbaric 
riot  around  their  ruined  fapades,  above  grim  vaults,  sub- 
terranean passages,  and  chambers  of  inexplicable  purpose. 
There  they  stand,  chapters  in  stone  of  the  history  of  a 
people  whose  destiny  it  seems  to  have  been  to  have 
formed  no  link  in  the  purpose  and  evolution  of  man  ; a 
people  who  seem  to  have  been  upon  the  threshold  of  a 
true  civilisation. 

The  form  of  government  of  the  principal  peoples  of 
Anahuac,  the  Aztecs  and  Texcocans,  was  an  uncommon 
one — that  of  an  elected  monarchy.  The  king  or 
emperor  was  chosen,  however,  from  among  members 
of  the  royal  family,  whether  brothers  or  nephews  of 
the  preceding  sovereign,  by  the  four  appointed  electors. 
He  was  installed  with  barbaric  splendour,  a main  feature 
of  the  event  being  the  great  sacrifice  of  human  beings  in 
the  Teocalli — that  diabolical  custom  which  ever  robs  the 
Aztec  regime  of  the  dignity  of  any  appellation  beyond 
that  of  semi-civilisation.  Otherwise  the  Aztec  regime  may 
be  considered  as  a military  democracy.  The  land  was 
held,  to  some  extent,  by  great  chiefs  under  a species  of 
feudal  system  which  carried  with  it  certain  obligations  as 
to  military  service,  but  it  was  also  assigned  to  the  use 
of  the  people.  The  monarchy  became  of  a despotic 
character,  and  legislative  power  lay  with  the  sovereign, 
although  a system  of  judicial  tribunals  administered 
justice  throughout  the  cities  of  the  Empire,  and  the  Aztec 
civilisation  had  at  least  advanced  far  enough  to  acknow- 
ledge and  uphold,  by  legal  machinery,  the  rights  and 


PREHISTORIC  MEXICO:  RUINS  OR  MIT  LA  : THE  HALL  OF  THE  GRECQUES, 


THE  STRANGE  CITIES 


49 


security  of  individuals  and  of  property.  Like  the  customs 
of  the  Incas  of  Peru,  heavy  penalties — generally  of  death 
—were  meted  out  for  bribery  or  corruption  of  the  officers 
of  justice. 

Indeed,  the  great  crimes  were  in  most  cases  capital 
offences,  as  murder,  adultery,  thieving,  as  well  as  the 
misappropriation  of  funds,  and  the  removal  of  land 
boundaries  with  intent  to  defraud.  Marriage  was  a 
solemn  and  binding  ceremonial,  and  divorce  could  be 
obtained  only  after  a careful  judicial  inquiry  and  sanc- 
tion. Slavery  existed  in  several  forms — captives  of 
battles,  reserved  for  the  sacrifice  ; criminals,  paupers, 
and  debtors  became  slaves  voluntarily  ; and  children  of 
poor  parents  who  where  sold  into  a species  of  mild 
servitude  or  dependency.  No  child,  however,  could  be 
born  into  the  condition  of  slavery — a somewhat  unique 
proviso  among  systems  of  servitude. 

The  land  system  was,  in  some  respects,  similar  to  that 
which  obtained  amongst  the  Incas  : a just  and  philo- 
sophical distribution  of  the  soil  amongst  the  people  who 
dwelt  upon  it.  Indeed,  in  the  matter  of  land  tenure,  both 
the  Incas  and  the  Aztecs — these  semi-civilised  peoples  of 
prehistoric  America — employed  a system  which  the  most 
advanced  nations  of  to-day — Great  Britain  or  the  United 
States — have  not  yet  evolved,  although  in  the  case  of 
Britain  it  seems  that  such  is  slowly  appearing.  The 
system  was  that  of  parcelling  out  the  land  among  the 
families  of  the  villages  or  country-side,  and  did  not  permit 
its  absorption  by  large,  individual  landholders.  The 
peasant  thus  had  his  means  of  support  assured,  and  it 
was  forbidden  to  dispose  of  the  land  thus  allotted,  which 
reverted  to  the  State  in  the  case  of  extinction  of  the 
family.  This  land  system  was  governed  by  a careful 
code  of  laws,  in  these  American  communities.  In  Peru 
the  individual  ownership  of  land  was  a very  marked 
feature  of  the  social  regime.1  Lands  were  nevertheless 
set  apart  for  the  sovereign. 

1 See  my  books  “ Peru,”  and  the  “ Andes  and  the  Amazon.”  These  land 
systems  are  worthy  of  study  by  economists  upon  the  land  question  to-day. 

5 


50 


MEXICO 


Taxes  were  paid  upon  agriculture  and  manufacture,  in 
goods.  These  included  most  of  the  very  varied  products 
of  the  empire — varying  as  they  did  with  the  wide  range 
of  climate  and  topography,  just  as  the  products  of  the 
Mexico  of  to-day  vary.  Gold  and  copper  utensils,  pottery, 
arms,  paper,  cochineal,  timber,  cocoa,  grains,  fruits, 
gums,  animals,  and  birds,  and  the  beautiful  feather- 
work  in  which  the  people  excelled,  were  among  these. 
Spacious  warehouses  in  the  capitals  existed  (as  in  Peru) 
for  the  storing  of  these,  and  any  embezzlement  or  mal- 
administration was  rigorously  punished. 

Another  institution  of  the  Aztecs  which  calls  to  the 
traveller’s  mind  a similar  one  among  the  coeval  Incas  of 
Peru,  three  thousand  miles  away  in  South  America,  was 
that  of  their  means  of  communication.  Such  were  main- 
tained by  relays  of  runners  or  postmen,  who  journeyed  at 
great  speed  over  roads  which  connected  the  distant  parts 
of  the  empire  ; and  it  is  stated  that  two  hundred  miles 
were  covered  in  a day  by  these  trained  messengers,  each 
of  which  performed  the  two  leagues — the  distance 
between  the  post-houses — within  an  hour.  Just  as  the 
Inca  Emperor  of  Peru,  at  Cuzco,  beyond  the  great 
Cordillera  of  the  Andes,  was  served  with  fish  brought  in 
fresh  from  the  Pacific  Ocean,  so  Montezuma,  the  Aztec 
monarch,  also  ate  it,  straight  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
at  his  capital  of  Tenochtitlan  beyond  the  maritime 
Cordillera  of  Anahuac.  Striking  and  of  marked  interest 
to  the  traveller  of  to-day,  in  those  vast  and  rugged  regions 
of  Mexico  and  Peru,  is  this  matter  of  the  native  couriers, 
who  journeyed  over  mountain  roads,  swollen  rivers, 
desert  plains,  and  ice-crowned  summits. 

The  wealthier  people  lived  in  houses  of  stone,  finished 
and  furnished  with  certain  barbaric  luxuriance,  in  which 
tapestries  woven  and  richly  coloured,  and  secured  with 
fastenings  of  gold,  had  their  place.  A remarkable  industry 
and  article  of  clothing  of  the  early  Mexicans  was  the 
beautiful  feather- work,  made  of  the  plumage  of  the  many- 
coloured  birds,  for  which  Mexico  is  famous.  Surtouts  of 
this  feather-work  were  worn  outside  their  military  dresses, 
or  armour,  of  padded  cotton. 


THE  STRANGE  CITIES 


51 


War  was  the  great  mainspring  of  action  of  the  Aztecs. 
It  is  true  that  they  had  a long  peaceful  period  after  their 
establishing  upon  the  lake-girt  island  of  the  Eagle  and  the 
Serpent,  and  that  they  developed  their  civilisation  in  some 
security  within  this  natural  fortification,  but  nevertheless, 
as  previously  shown,  they  extended  their  conquests  on 
all  sides.  Fear,  not  regard,  kept  the  subject-nations  of 
Anahuac  under  their  sway,  however,  and  this  was  one  of 
the  elements  leading  to  the  downfall  of  the  empire,  in  the 
course  of  time.  Military  orders  were  much  esteemed  and 
bestowed.  The  armies  were  well  equipped  and  drilled, 
and  breaches  of  discipline  were  rigorously  punished. 
The  hospitals,  which  were  established  for  the  treatment  of 
the  sick  and  wounded,  called  forth  the  praise  of  the  Spanish 
chroniclers.  Captives  of  war  were  made  as  abundantly 
as  possible,  to  be  reserved  for  the  sacrificial  stone  of  the 
war-god,  and  the  Aztecs  carried  on  this  appalling  practice 
of  human  sacrifice  to  such  an  extent  as  has  not  been 
equalled  by  any  other  nation.  But  the  most  atrocious 
part  of  the  ceremony,  as  practised  on  some  occasions,  was 
that  of  the  serving  up  of  the  body  of  victims  at  a repast, 
where  they  were  eaten  ! — sheer  cannibalism,  which  is 
vouched  for  as  their  practice  as  a religious  rite. 

How  was  the  history  of  the  early  Mexicans  handed 
down  and  perpetuated  ? It  is  probable  that  the  ancient 
civilisations  of  America  were  near  the  dawn  of  a literature 
when  their  culture  was  destroyed.  They  had  already 
some  phonetic  signs  in  use,  from  which,  in  the  natural 
course  of  time,  an  alphabet  might  have  evolved  ; but  the 
picture-writing,  or  clumsy  hieroglyphical  representation 
of  things  in  line  and  colour  to  express  ideas,  was  their 
main  method.  Yet  their  laws,  State  accounts,  history,  and 
other  matters  were  so  recorded.  When  the  Spaniards  set 
foot  on  the  coast  a hieroglyphical  representation  of  them 
and  their  ships,  delineated  on  native  paper,  was  in  the 
hands  of  Montezuma  a few  hours  afterwards — a species  of 
rapid  edition  of  a newspaper  indeed  ! But  these  written 
records  were  supplemented  by  oral  descriptions,  and 
the  two  methods  in  conjunction  formed  the  Aztec 


52 


MEXICO 


literature.  Paper  for  such  documents  were  made  of 
skins,  or  cotton  cloth,  or  of  the  fibrous  leaves  of  the 
maguey,  and  this  last,  a species  of  ‘'papyrus/'  was  carefully 
prepared,  and  was  of  a durable  nature.  Aztec  literature 
of  this  nature  existed  in  considerable  quantities  at  the 
beginning  of  the  Hispanic  occupation.  It  was  thoroughly 
destroyed  by  the  execrable  act  of  the  first  Archbishop 
of  Mexico — Zumarraga,  who,  looking  upon  these  papers 
as  “devilish  scrolls,”  had  them  collected,  piled  up,  and 
burnt  ! Some  few,  however,  escaped,  and  were  preserved 
and  published  in  Europe.  Some  famous  Maya  documents 
of  this  nature,  from  Yucatan,  have  also  brought  to  light 
some  details  of  those  people. 

The  Mexicans’  scientific  knowledge  was  simple  and 
primitive.  Some  arithmetical  system  had  been  evolved, 
but,  on  the  other  hand,  they  had  calculated  and  adopted 
a chronology — probably  it  had  been  inherited  from  the 
Toltecs — which  displayed  a remarkable  precision,  in  that 
they  adjusted  the  difference  of  the  civil  and  solar  year  in 
a way  superior  to  that  of  contemporary  European  nations. 

In  primitive  Mexico — like  primitive  Peru — agriculture 
was  far  advanced  as  an  industry.  Land  was  apportioned, 
as  has  been  shown,  on  a philosophical  basis  for  the  needs 
of  the  inhabitants.  In  that  respect  the  system  was  far 
superior  to  that  of  the  Republic  of  Mexico  of  to-day, 
where  the  whole  surface  of  the  land  is  mainly  held  by 
large  landholders.  Irrigation  was  an  advanced  art, 
artificial  canals  being  made  to  conduct  the  water  from  the 
streams  to  the  arid  lands.  The  main  article  of  diet  among 
the  mass  of  the  people — then,  as  now — was  maiz,  which 
grows  freely  from  highlands  to  lowlands.  Bananas, 
chocolate — indeed,  the  latter,  chocolatl,  is  an  Aztec  word 
— were  among  their  numerous  agricultural  products. 
The  maguey — the  Agave  americana — was  an  invaluable 
ally  of  life  and  civilisation.  It  afforded  them  the  famous 
beverage  of  pulque  ; they  made  ropes,  mats,  paper,  and 
other  things  from  its  fibre ; and  the  leaves  furnished  an 
article  of  diet. 

Mining  was  confined  to  the  getting  of  gold  from  river- 


PKEHISTOKIC  MEXICO  : KUINS  OE  TEMPLE  AT  CHICHEN-YTZA,  IN  YUCATAN. 


THE  STRANGE  CITIES 


53 


beds,  where  it  had  been  concentrated  by  Nature,  and 
possibly  on  a small  scale  by  amalgamation  with  quick- 
silver. Copper  and  tin  were  found  and  used,  and  indeed 
to-day  the  natives  in  certain  places  beat  out  large  copper 
vessels,1  and  offer  for  sale  masses  of  rude  copper  matte,1 
from  their  primitive  earthen  furnaces.  The  obsidian 
mines  of  Itzala  furnished  them  with  tools  for  the  cutting 
of  stone,  sculpture,  and  other  purposes,  and  for  their 
terrible  weapons  of  war. 

Sculpture  and  painting  were  very  rudimentary,  the 
former  being  confined  chiefly  to  the  representation  of 
repugnant  deities,  although  the  carved  stone  edifices  and 
temples  were  in  some  cases  singularly  beautiful,  as 
elsewhere  described.  The  sculptured  figures  of  Mexican 
deities,  in  some  cases,  remind  the  traveller  strongly  of 
similar  representations  of  the  Incas,2  such  as  exist  in  the 
fastnesses  of  the  Andes  of  Peru.  The  famous  Mexican 
Calendar  stone,  weighing  about  fifty  tons,  which  was 
brought  for  many  miles  over  broken  country  to  the  Aztec 
capital,  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  examples  of  their 
sculpture.  Numerous  smaller  examples  of  prehistoric 
sculpture  exist,  some  beautiful  in  design  and  execution. 
The  feathered  serpent  is  a frequent  symbolical  device 
upon  these  native  works  of  art. 

Pottery  was  made  without  the  potter’s  wheel,  by 
modelling ; and  painting  and  burning  were  practised. 
Musical  instruments  were  also  made  of  clay.  Trade  was 
conducted  in  ancient  Mexico  in  great  fairs  or  market- 
places, not  in  shops,  and  indeed  this  custom  is  still  that 
preferred  by  the  Mexican  natives  of  the  peon  class  to-day. 
The  currency  consisted  of  quills  of  gold-dust,  small  pieces 
of  tin,  and  stamped  copper,  and  barter  was  a principal 
mode  of  transaction.  The  merchants  were  an  important 
class,  carrying  on  extensive  operations  and  expeditions 

1 I have  used  and  purchased  these  articles  in  the  State  of  Durango. 

2 The  figure  of  the  conventionalised  serpent-god  on  the  onyx  tablet 
found  in  1895  in  the  Valley  of  Mexico  and  taken  to  the  Museum  of  Chicago 
(see  Holmes’s  “ Ancient  Cities  of  Mexico  ” ) strongly  reminds  me  of  the 
figure  on  the  stone  from  Chavin  in  Peru  (see  “The  Andes  and  the 
Amazon  ” ). 


54 


MEXICO 


far  beyond  the  borders  of  the  empire,  under  armed 
escorts,  and  they  occupied  often  a position  of  political, 
and  even  diplomatic  nature,  such  as  was  a peculiar 
feature  of  Aztec  civilisation. 

Social  conditions  showed  much  of  quiet  civilisation 
and  tolerance.  The  women  were  never  employed  in  the 
fields  ; and  they  took  equal  part  with  the  men  in  social 
matters.  They  were  modest  and  not  unattractive,  traits 
which  remain  to  this  day  among  the  peasant  class  of 
Mexico.  The  menage  of  Aztec  homes,  method  of  feasting, 
foods,  napery,  ablutions,  and  other  matters,  as  recorded  by 
the  historians  show  a marked  stage  of  refinement,  except 
for  the  abominable  practice  of  cannibalism.  Chocolate 
and  pulque  were  the  favourite  drinks. 

Any  survey  of  the  Aztec  customs  shows  a remarkable 
fact — they  seem  to  have  received  their  civilisation  and 
customs  from  more  than  one  source.  For  among  the 
most  refined  habits  and  methods  the  most  barbarous  and 
disgusting  acts  are  found.  A refined  and  humane  spirit 
of  culture  seems,  by  some  method,  or  at  some  time,  to 
have  been  grafted  on  to  a spirit  of  primitive  savagery,  and 
each  to  have  retained  its  character  and  practices.  But 
their  social  system  was  not  an  unhappy  one  for  their 
people.  It  was  an  epoch  of  handiwork,  where  all  were 
employed  and  all  were  fed ; and  if  there  were  few 
comforts  and  enlightenments  in  their  life,  there  was,  at 
least,  little  misery,  such  as  is  so  freely  encountered  in  the 
life  of  modern  civilisation. 

But  destiny  was  now  to  compass  the  end  of  the  Aztec 
regime,  for  from  the  shores  of  the  stormy  waters  of  the 
seas  towards  the  sunrise,  came  rumours  of  strange  white 
men.  Who  were  they  ? asked  the  Aztec  emperor  and 
his  advisers,  in  solemn  conclave.  Were  they  not  those 
heralded  by  the  long-expected  Quetzacoatl  ? If  so,  of 
what  use  was  it  to  defy  the  fates,  which  had  set  forth  long 
ago  that  the  land  should  be  ruled,  some  day,  by  a white 
race  coming  from  the  East  ? And  when  a fleet  of  great 
“water-houses,”  with  white  wings,  touched  at  Yucatan, 
and  the  swift  runners  brought  the  tidings  over  nigh  a 


THE  STRANGE  CITIES 


55 


thousand  miles  of  forest  and  mountain  in  a few  days,  the 
credulous  ear  of  Montezuma  listened  easily.  And  when 
the  Spaniards  landed  at  Vera  Cruz,  and  won  their  way  up 
to  the  fastnesses  of  Anahuac,  it  was  still  the  hand  of 
destiny.  The  time  was  fulfilled,  the  arm  of  civilisation 
had  reached  out  towards  the  West,  and  it  fell  athwart  the 
Great  Plateau  of  unknown  Mexico. 


CHAPTER  IV 


CORTES  AND  THE  CONQUEST 

Landing  of  Cortes — Orizaba  peak — The  dawn  of  conquest — Discovery  of 
Yucatan — Velasquez  and  Grijalva — Life  and  character  of  Cortes — 
Cortes  selected  to  head  the  expedition — Departure  from  Cuba — 
Arrival  at  Yucatan — The  coast  of  Vera  Cruz — Marina — Vera  Cruz 
established  — Aztec  surprise  at  guns  and  horses  — Montezuma  — 
Dazzling  Aztec  gifts — Messages  to  Montezuma — Hostility  of  the 
Aztecs — Key  to  the  situation — The  Cempoallas — Father  Olmedo — 
Religion  and  hypocrisy  of  the  Christians — March  to  Cempoalla — 
Montezuma’s  tax-collectors  — Duplicity  of  Cortes  — Vacillation  of 
Montezuma — Destruction  of  Totonac  idols — Cortes  despatches  pre- 
sents to  the  King  of  Spain — Cortes  destroys  his  ships — March 
towards  the  Aztec  capital — Scenery  upon  line  of  march — The  for- 
tress of  Tlascala — Brusque  variations  of  climate — The  Tlascalans — 
Severe  fighting — Capitulation  of  Tlascala — Faithful  allies — Mes- 
sengers from  Montezuma  — March  to  Cholula  — Massacre  of 
Cholula  — The  snow-capped  volcanoes  — First  sight  of  Tenoch- 
titlan. 


“ Brightly  my  star,  new  hope  supplying, 

Leads  on  the  hour  shall  all,  all  repay  ! ” 

Such,  indeed,  might  have  been  the  sentiment  which 
inspired  the  breasts  of  Hernando  Cortes  and  his  Spaniards 
on  that  memorable  Good  Friday,  April  21,  1519,  as  they 
first  set  foot  upon  the  Mexican  mainland,  upon  those 
sandy  shores  which  in  the  act  they  christened  Vera  Cruz. 

Before  them,  far  away  beyond  the  sandy  desert  and  the 
tree-crowned  slopes,  stretched  a high  cordillera,  a curtain 
drawn  between  them  and  the  unknown  world  of  the 
interior.  What  lay  there  ? Matters  of  grave  interest 
and  preoccupation  ! For  beyond  that  far,  blue  maritime 

56 


CORTES  AND  THE  CONQUEST  57 


defence  of  Anahuac — they  had  that  moment  learned  it — 
there  dwelt  a mighty  potentate  and  people,  steeped  with 
savage  soldier-craft,  rendered  more  terrible  by  the  barbaric 
civilisation  which  it  upheld.  Here  were  no  gentle  savages 
such  as  they  had  hunted  in  the  forests  of  Cuba  and 
Hispaniola ; and  the  mail-clad,  helmeted  Spaniards 
listened  at  first  with  mixed  feelings  to  the  accounts  of  the 
friendly  Indians  who  greeted  them  at  the  shore,  feelings 
in  which  the  spirit  of  conquest  rose  high  and  dominant. 

The  ten  caravels  of  Cortes  are  swinging  at  anchor  in 
the  bay,  whose  white-capped  waters  they  have  just 
passed.  The  Spaniards  have  reconnoitred  the  beach, 
and  their  eyes  have  followed  the  rising  landscape  to 
where,  beyond  the  forest-clad  mountains,  and  emerging 
from  the  clouds  which  girt  them,  a single  gleaming, 
snowy  point  appeared,  piercing  the  blue  heavens  like 
the  gnomon  of  a mighty  dial.  It  was  Citlalteptl,  the 
“mountain  of  the  star/’  the  natives  told  them.  It  was 
the  lofty  Orizaba,  the  sunlight  on  its  perpetual  snow-cap 
bringing  it  to  deceptive  nearness. 

Halting  thus  upon  this  sunny  shore,  who  were  these 
Spaniards,  and  what  was  their  mission  and  character  ? 
Let  us  briefly  sketch  them.  Those  were  stirring  times 
in  “ ocean  chivalry.”  The  dream  of  Columbus  had  been 
accomplished  for  twenty-five  years  ; Balboa  had  crossed 
the  isthmus  a few  years  since  and  Panama  was  known. 
The  islands  of  Cuba  and  Santa  Domingo  had  been  settled 
and  made  starting-points  for  further  discoveries,  and  two 
years  before — in  1517 — a Cuban  hidalgo,  Hernandez  de 
Cordova,  blown  by  a fierce  gale,  with  his  three  ships,  far 
from  his  objective  point  of  the  Bahamas,  landed  on  an 
unknown  land  where  the  Indians  said  “ Tectecan  ” — “I 
do  not  understand  you.”  What  was  this  land  ? It  was 
the  peninsula  now  called  Yucatan — “ tectecan  ” — part  of 
the  Mexico  of  to-day.  And  on  Cordova’s  return  to  Cuba, 
the  governor  of  that  island,  Don  Diego  de  Velasquez, 
bestirred  himself  right  actively,  impelled  by  certain 
longings  for  conquest  he  had  long  nourished,  and  by 
the  adventures,  and  curious  things  of  laboured  gold 


58 


MEXICO 


brought  back  by  Cordova.  Fitting  out  four  vessels, 
Velasquez  put  them  under  the  command  of  his  nephew, 
Juan  de  Grijalva,  and  quickly  sent  them  forth  to  win  him 
riches  and  fame  in  those  unknown  lands — May,  1518. 
Grijalva  duly  touched  and  coasted  upon  the  islands  and 
shores  of  Yucatan,  and  his  name  remains  to-day  in  the 
great  Grijalva  river.  Thence  he  followed  the  horseshoe 
curve  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  arrived  and  landed  at 
San  Juan  de  Ulua,  the  same  point  where  we  left  Cortes 
and  his  Spaniards  halting.  To  Grijalva  is  due  the  prestige 
of  first  landing  on  the  shores  of  Mexico,  and  of  having 
intercourse  with  its  people  of  the  Aztecs.  But,  Grijalva 
tarrying  long,  Don  Diego  de  Velasquez  had  despatched 
another  expedition,  commanding  his  nephew  to  return, 
which  the  latter  did  and  was  received  coldly  by  the 
jealous  and  ungenerous  Governor,  as  he  is  painted  by 
his  historians.  Still  bent  on  greater  conquest,  Velasquez 
cast  about  for  men,  money,  and  ships,  and  his  eye  fell 
on  the  capable  Hernando  Cortes,  the  young  Spaniard 
who,  born  in  Estremadura  in  1485,  had  set  out,  impatient 
of  the  old  world,  to  seek  his  fortunes  in  the  new  : and 
had  amassed — “ God  knows  by  what  methods,”  as  one  of 
his  chroniclers  says — a small  fortune  under  the  Governor’s 
rule.  Here  was  the  man,  and,  incidentally,  here  was  part 
of  the  money  ! For  Cortes  was  popular  and  daring, 
and  notwithstanding  the  several  occasions  on  which  he 
had  come  into  collision  with  the  Governor  and  the  law, 
Velasquez  held  him  in  certain  favour. 

The  life  of  Cortes  up  to  that  point — let  us  touch  upon 
it  before  accompanying  him,  and  know  what  manner 
of  man  he  was — had  been  urged  principally  by  selfish 
adventure  and  amorous  intrigues.  He  had  arrived  in 
Hispanola  in  1504,  and  upon  being  offered  a grant  of 
land  and  repartimiento  of  Indians  replied  that  “ he  had 
left  Spain  in  search  of  gold — not  to  become  a land-tilling 
peasant."  In  1511,  under  Velasquez,  who  had  been 
appointed  to  the  conquest  of  Cuba,  Cortes  found  outlet 
for  his  adventurous  spirit,  and  in  the  Indian  warfare  of 
the  island  gave  promise  of  the  valour  and  activity  which 


CORTES  AND  THE  CONQUEST  59 

underlay  a jocular  and  seemingly  trivial  character.  At 
the  same  time  he  became  accustomed  to  the  barbarous 
methods  of  conquest  and  cruelty  displayed  by  the 
Spaniards  in  those  regions,  and  to  the  abuse  of  power 
and  arbitrary  jealousies  and  exactions  displayed  both  to 
natives  and  colonials  by  the  petty  Imperial  authorities. 
Cortes  had  soon  fallen  foul  of  Velasquez.  On  two 
occasions  he  had  been  thrown  into  prison  by  the 
Governor’s  orders,  but  had  escaped,  partly  by  his  own 
activity,  and  partly — it  is  held — by  connivance  of  his 
gaolers.  Associated  with  these  episodes  was  a beautiful 
Spanish  girl,  Catalina  Juarez,  whom  he  had  refused  to 
marry  in  spite  of  the  representations  of  her  family,  due 
to  his  relations  with  her  : Velasquez  also  being  interested 
in  the  family,  in  the  person  of  Catalina’s  sister.  How- 
ever, after  a time,  Cortes  married  and  lived  happily  with 
her  upon  his  estate.  Land  and  Indians  were  granted  him, 
and  he  acquired  some  wealth  from  agriculture  and  mining, 
maintaining  good  relations  with  the  Governor,  Velasquez. 

Now  it  was  that  Pedro  de  Alvarado,  the  future 
conqueror  of  Guatemala,  who  had  accompanied  Grijalva 
to  Mexico,  returned,  and  now  it  was  that  Velasquez  cast 
about  for  men,  money  and  ships,  to  push  the  conquest 
of  Mexico.  Choice  fell  upon  Cortes.  The  long- 
nourished  hopes  of  the  young  Spaniard — he  was  thirty- 
four  or  five — were  fulfilled.  He  realised  all  his  resources 
to  subscribe  towards  the  expense,  covering  indeed  the 
major  portion  of  the  cost  of  ships  and  stores.  The  little 
port  of  Santiago  de  Cuba  echoed  with  the  bustle  of 
preparation.  The  vessels,  most  of  which  were  simply 
open  brigantines,  the  largest  not  more  than  one  hundred 
tons,  were  rapidly  fitted  out.  Hundreds  of  men  flocked 
instantly  to  his  leadership.  Away  to  the  West  their 
thoughts  and  enthusiasm  carried  one  and  all  ; gold, 
adventure,  fame — who  would  not  go  ! 

The  light  and  easy  character  of  Cortes  changed  under 
the  grave  import  and  responsibility  of  this  great  mission, 
in  which  he  seemed  to  recognise  some  fulfilment  by 
Providence  of  his  lifelong  hopes.  H ere  he  was,  a 


60 


MEXICO 


relatively  humble  subject  of  Spain,  of  relatively  obscure 
parentage,  although  conscious  of  that  powerful  instinct 
of  being  a Caballero — a gentleman — singled  out  for  this 
great  enterprise  ! There  was  but  one  fear — that  its 
command  should  be  snatched  from  him  at  the  last 
moment  ! And,  indeed,  this  was  averted  by  a mere 
hair’s  breadth,  say  the  chroniclers.  For  the  jealous 
Velasquez,  influenced  by  other  jealous  advisers,  and  fear- 
ing that  the  independent  spirit  of  Cortes  would  arrogate 
to  himself  the  glory  and  profit  of  the  enterprise,  once 
away  from  his  influence,  resolved  at  the  last  moment 
to  quit  him  of  his  command  and  substitute  another. 
Cortes  heard  of  it.  Apprehension  lent  him  a super- 
human energy.  Once  away  from  Cuba’s  shores — ah  ! 
then  he  could  parley  with  its  Governor.  He  visited  his 
trusty  officers.  Butchers,  bakers,  ammunition-makers 
were  bribed  and  hurried,  the  stores  were  rushed  on 
board,  commander  and  crew  embarked  at  midnight,  and 
when  morning  dawned  the  good  people  of  Santiago  de 
Cuba  awoke  to  see  the  white  sails  of  the  squadron  rising 
to  meet  the  breeze,  whilst  the  rattle  of  the  cables  of  the 
up-getting  moorings  fell  upon  their  ears.  Down  rushed 
Velasquez  from  his  bed,  and  galloped  to  the  wharf. 
“ Stop  them  ! Stop  them  ! ” But  it  was  too  late — who 
could  stop  them  ? 

Before  his  sails  filled  to  the  breeze  Cortes  approached 
the  shore  in  an  armed  boat.  “ Farewell ! good  Gov- 
ernor," was  the  burden  of  his  words.  “ Time  is  short, 
and  what  is  to  be  done  'twere  well  it  were  done  quickly  ! ” 
And  so  he  sailed  away  towards  the  West,  into  a sunset- 
land  of  conquest-dreams,  and  left  Velasquez  fuming  on 
the  quay.1 

But  the  jealous  Governor's  resources  were  not  quite 
exhausted.  He  despatched  swift  messengers  to  other 
Cuban  ports  where  the  expedition  must  touch  for 
further  supplies,  ill-provisioned  as  it  was  by  the  hasty 

1 This  story  of  the  departure  of  Cortes  is  doubted  by  some  writers,  but 
it  appeals  to  the  mind  of  the  adventurous  traveller  in  those  regions,  even 
to-day,  with  too  strong  a ring  of  probability  to  be  ignored. 


PREHISTORIC  MEXICO:  RUINS  OF  “THE  PALACE”  AT  CH  ICH  EN-YTZA,  IN  YUCATAN. 


CORTES  AND  THE  CONQUEST  61 


departure,  with  orders  for  the  authorities  at  these  points 
to  detain  Cortes  at  all  hazards.  It  was  useless.  Far 
from  detention,  he  received  supplies  and  reinforcements. 
A number  of  well-known  hidalgos  joined  him,  among 
them  Pedro  de  Alvarado,  Cristoval  de  Olid,  Velasquez  de 
Leon,  Gonzalo  de  Sandoval,  Hernandez  Puertocarrero, 
Alonzo  de  Avila,  and  others  who  took  a valiant  part 
afterwards  in  the  conquest.  At  his  last  port  of  depar- 
ture Cortes  wrote  a letter  to  Velasquez,  of  a conciliatory 
nature  : reviewed  his  forces,  which  amounted  to  nearly 
nine  hundred  Spaniards  and  two  hundred  Indians,  with 
ten  heavy  guns,  several  falconets,  ample  ammunition, 
and  sixteen  horses,  in  eleven  vessels.  Having  addressed 
the  forces  in  words  of  enthusiasm,  dangling  before  them 
the  glories  of  conquest,  specially  pointing  out  to  them 
that  they  were  carrying  the  Cross  to  set  before  savages, 
Cortes  invoked  the  patronage  of  St.  Peter,  and  the 
squadron  set  sail  for  the  shores  of  Yucatan. 

How  they  arrived  at  the  island  of  Cozumel,  fought 
with  the  Indians  of  the  mainland,  tumbled  the  gross 
idols  of  the  savages  from  their  pyramid-temple,  and  set 
up  an  altar  to  the  Virgin  ; and  how  they  recovered 
an  unfortunate  Spaniard  who  had  sojourned  eight  years, 
after  shipwreck,  with  the  natives  of  Yucatan ; how 
Alvarado  antagonised  the  natives  and  Cortes  pacified 
them  ; and  how  they  sailed  thence  to  the  real  shores  of 
Mexico,  where  we  left  them  halting,  are  fascinating 
matters  of  their  voyage  which  we  must  thus  lightly  pass 
over. 

Behold  a level,  sun-beat,  wind-swept  plain,  the  drifting 
sand  blown  into  medanos,  or  sand-hills,  by  the  hurricanes 
of  the  gulf,  the  perennial  norte.  Here  are  the  Conquis- 
tadores  grouped,  Cortes  and  his  associates.  Among 
them  is  the  figure  of  a woman,  and  her  name  is  worthy 
to  rank  in  the  first  verse  and  chapter  of  our  story.  It  is 
Marina,  the  beautiful  Indian  girl  who  had  been  given  to 
the  Spaniards,  among  other  female  slaves,  at  Tabasco, 
in  Yucatan,  and  who,  Cortes  had  learned,  spoke  the 
language  of  the  Mexicans,  in  addition  to  her  native 


62 


MEXICO 


Yucatec.  So  Marina  was  the  interpreter  through  whose 
medium  understanding  was  had  with  the  natives.  This 
was  in  conjunction  with  the  Spaniard  Aguilar — the 
rescued  castaway,  who  spoke  the  language  of  Marina. 
But  this  was  only  at  first,  for  as  Cortes  loved  her  and 
she  loved  him,  she  soon  acquired  the  Castilian  of  the 
Conquistador  as  his  mistress. 

Thus  was  parley  opened  with  the  natives  and  their 
caciques,  and  knowledge  gained  of  Montezuma,  the  great 
Emperor  of  the  Aztecs,  and  of  the  power  and  circum- 
stances of  their  empire,  whose  rule  extended  to  the  coast 
whereon  they  stood.  Cortes  and  his  captains  made 
presents  to  the  caciques,  and  received  such  in  return, 
and  it  was  decided  to  establish  the  colony  of  Villa  Rica 
de  Vera  Cruz.  A pretty  piece  of  juggling — singular  yet 
not  unjustifiable — took  place  in  the  inauguration  of  this, 
Cortes  establishing  his  captains  as  its  municipality, 
resigning  the  commission  he  had  received  from  the 
Governor  of  Cuba  into  the  hands  of  the  body  he  had 
called  into  being  himself,  and  then  accepting  from  it  a 
commission  as  captain-general,  all  taking  title  as  officials 
of  the  Crown  of  Spain  ! This  proceeding,  solemnly 
carried  out  on  the  edge  of  the  wilderness,  and  in  sound 
of  the  roaring  waters  of  the  Gulf,  is  not  without  a 
Gilbertian  spice. 

Rude  habitations  had  been  built,  guns  mounted,  and 
supplies  secured  from  the  Indian  population  which 
flocked  around  the  Spaniards.  And  suddenly  a new 
sensation  was  sprung  upon  these  simple  people.  The 
horses  were  brought  on  shore,  and  the  cavalry  man- 
oeuvred upon  the  beach  ; cannons  were  fired  and  trum- 
pets sounded,  the  shot  from  the  guns,  purposely  directed 
against  the  trees,  smashing  them  to  splinters.  Filled  with 
awe,  the  Aztec  chief  of  the  place — the  friendly  cacique 
Teuhtile — bade  his  picture-writers  depict  it  all ; and 
upon  the  native  paper  these  terrible  gachupines 1 and 
their  great  “ water-houses,”  and  thundering  engines,  and 
singular  musical  instruments,  were  drawn  in  lifelike  form 

1 The  Aztec  word  for  centaurs,  which  was  applied  to  the  horsemen. 


CORTES  AND  THE  CONQUEST  63 


by  these  native  “newspaper  artists,”  to  be  despatched 
by  the  native  postmen  over  the  rocky  fastnesses  of  the 
Cordilleras  to  the  great  Montezuma.  Then  Cortes 
announced  his  mission.  He  was  the  ambassador  of  a 
mighty  Emperor  from  beyond  the  seas,  come  to  greet 
the  Emperor  of  the  Aztecs  and  to  carry  a present  from 
his  monarch,  the  mightiest  in  the  world.  When  could 
he  be  admitted  before  Montezuma  ? The  awe  in  which 
this  potentate  was  held  by  his  vassals  was  shown  in  Teuh- 
tile’s  reply  : “ Was  it  possible  that  a monarch,  the  equal 
of  the  Aztec  king,  existed  elsewhere  ? How  could  the 
white  men  ask,  at  such  short  notice,  to  be  admitted  to 
the  semi-sacred  presence  ? ” But  he  brought  forward 
presents  of  beautiful  featherwork  and  ornaments  of  gold 
for  the  Spaniards  ; and  Cortes,  not  to  be  outdone,  pro- 
duced a richly-carved  chair  and  other  things  admired 
by  the  simple  natives,  including  articles  of  cut  glass, 
which  were  held  to  be  gems  of  great  price,  as  of  course 
the  Aztecs  had  no  knowledge  of  glass.  All  these  matters 
were  carried  out  with  due  ceremony,  messengers  with 
the  presents  were  sent  to  Montezuma,  and  the  Spaniards, 
pending  the  return  of  the  emissaries  of  Teuhtile  with  their 
greeting,  devoted  themselves  to  the  perfecting  of  their 
dwellings. 

Little  more  than  a week  elapsed.  In  that  time  the 
swift  native  carriers  had  traversed  and  re-traversed  the 
steep  and  rugged  road  from  the  coast  to  the  valley  of 
Anahuac,  a distance  of  about  two  hundred  miles  each  way. 
The  substance  of  their  message  from  Montezuma  was 
“ Come  not  hither  ; the  road  is  long  and  dangerous  ; 
return  to  your  country  with  our  greetings  to  your  great 
King.”  A magnificent  present  accompanied  this  some- 
what chilling  reply — articles  of  gold  and  silver,  beautifully 
wrought,  among  them  a huge  gold  plate,  and  one  of 
silver,  circular  in  form  and  “ as  large  as  carriage- 
wheels,”  twenty-eight  spans  in  circumference,  represent- 
ing respectively  the  images  of  the  sun  and  the  moon 
and  engraved  with  figures  of  animals,  doubtless  indica- 
tive of  some  chronological  symbol — the  value  of  the 


64 


MEXICO 


gold  wheel  was  afterwards  estimated  at  more  than 
.£50,000 — other  articles  of  clothing  and  armour,  includ- 
ing a number  of  beautiful  golden  shields  inlaid  and 
decorated,  necklaces  of  rubies  and  pearls,  and  a quantity 
of  the  intricate  and  beautiful  feather-work. 

What  was  the  result  of  all  this,  upon  the  Spaniards — 
this  wealth  of  treasure  and  this  unencouraging  greeting  ? 
“ Go  back  again,"  was  the  substance  of  Cortes’s  reply  to 
the  ambassadors  of  Montezuma  ; “ tell  your  monarch 
the  mountain  road  and  its  dangers  do  not  appal  us — 
we  who  have  sailed  two  thousand  leagues  of  troubled 
ocean  to  arrive  here — and  we  cannot  return  to  our  great 
sovereign  without  having  personally  greeted  yours." 
Again  the  Spaniards  waited  the  messengers’  return, 
weary  of  the  wind-  and  sand-swept  plains  of  Vera  Cruz  ; 
assailed  by  the  calenturas  ever  encountered  upon  the 
American  coasts,  the  bilious  malarial  disorders  which 
Nature  has  made  the  scourge  of  the  tropics,  and  which 
the  science  of  modern  man  has  only  just  begun  to 
investigate.  Again  the  messengers — within  ten  days — 
returned.  Stripped  of  its  diplomatic  covering  of  cere- 
mony and  further  presents,  the  Aztec  Emperor’s  reply 
may  be  condensed  as  “ Get  thee  hence  ! " And,  as  if 
to  bear  out  some  royal  mandate,  the  natives  disappeared 
from  the  vicinity,  the  supplies  were  cut  off,  leaving  the 
Spaniards  halting  upon  this  debatable  ground,  in  chagrin 
and  indecision. 

But  not  for  long.  The  stern  design  of  the  Spaniards 
had  been  forced,  and  was  growing.  “ I vowed  to  your 
Royal  Highness  that  I would  have  Montezuma  prisoner, 
or  dead,  or  subject  to  your  Majesty,"  wrote  Cortes  to 
Carlos  V.  of  Spain,  from  Vera  Cruz  ; and  “ Think  you  we 
were  such  Spaniards  as  to  lie  there  idly  ? ” wrote  Bernal 
Diaz,  the  soldier-penman,  afterwards.  Yet  there  was 
some  disaffection  in  the  camp,  a portion  of  the  men, 
wearied  of  inaction  and  fearful  of  dangers,  desiring  to 
return  to  Cuba.  Here  Cortes’s  diplomacy  came  to  the 
rescue.  “ On  board,  all  of  you  ! " he  exclaimed.  “ Back 
to  Cuba  and  its  Governor,  and  see  what  happens  ! ” The 


CORTES  AND  THE  CONQUEST  65 


threat  and  sneer  had  the  effect  he  expected.  Scarcely 
a man  would  return,  but  on  the  contrary  they  clamoured 
for  the  establishment  of  a colony  and  for  a march  on 
Montezuma  and  his  capital,  whilst  the  few  who  remained 
disaffected  were  clapped  in  irons,  among  them  the 
hidalgo  Velasquez,  a relative  of  the  Governor  of  Cuba. 

And  now  it  was  that  the  key  to  the  situation  was  put 
into  the  hands  of  Cortes.  An  embassy  from  a semi- 
civilised,  powerful  nation  to  the  north,  upon  the  gulf- 
shores — the  Totonacs,  of  Cempoalla,  as  they  announced 
themselves — suddenly  arrived  in  the  colony  of  the 
Christians.  They  brought  an  invitation  from  their 
chief  for  the  Spaniards  to  visit  him,  with  the  infor- 
mation— and  here  was  the  circumstance  which  should 
make  conquest  possible — that  the  Totonacs  were  weary 
of  the  Aztec  yoke,  and  yearned  for  independence. 
“ Ha  ! ” thought  Cortes  and  his  hidalgo  associates, 
“they  are  delivered  into  our  hands!  They  are  divided, 
and  so  they  will  fall."  Father  Olmedo,  the  wise  and 
pious  confessor  of  the  forces,  to  whose  prudence  the 
security  of  the  Spaniards  owed  much,  and  who  was  the 
representative  of  the  great  Church  which  became  so 
potent  in  those  lands,  blessed  his  comrades’  conclaves, 
and  celebrated  solemn  Masses.  Indeed,  every  move  of 
the  Spaniards  was  accomplished  under  such  auspices, 
and  was  always  referred  by  Cortes  to  the  influence  of  the 
desire  to  carry  the  Cross  of  Christ  and  all  it  embodied,  to 
those  heathen  peoples  ; and  in  a spirited  address  to  the 
soldiers  he  declared  that  “without  this  motive  their 
expedition  was  but  one  of  oppression  and  robbery.” 
The  true  proportions  of  piety  and  hypocrisy  contained 
in  these  expressions  and  acts  must  be  left  to  the  know- 
ledge of  human  nature  of  the  reader.  Suffice  to  say  that 
the  Spaniards  did,  to  a large  extent,  look  upon  them- 
selves as  Crusaders,  and  that  a militant  religious  fervour 
animated  them,  in  conjunction  with  a spirit  of  avarice 
and  cruelty. 

And  so  they  marched  on  Cempoalla,  along  the  sandy 
shores  of  the  gulf,  passing  through  villages,  with  temples 

6 


66  MEXICO 

devoted  to  the  abominable  sacrificial  rites  which  they 
had  seen  in  Yucatan.  Thence  they  encountered  the 
fringe  of  the  tropical  forests,  and  at  length  entered  the 
strange  town  of  Cempoalla,  with  its  numerous  inhabi- 
tants, and  streets,  and  houses,  and  excellent  surround- 
ing cultivation.  Here  they  remained  some  days,  the 
Spaniards  delighted  with  the  fertile  region  and  the 
hospitable  natives.  The  great  Cacique  had  received  them 
in  his  residence — a building  of  stone  upon  a pyramid, 
after  the  fashion  of  the  structures  of  that  country,  and, 
the  fair  Marina  interpreting,  Cortes  stated  his  mission — 
“to  redress  abuses  and  punish  oppressors,  and  to 
establish  the  true  faith.”  The  substance  of  the  chief's 
reply  was  that,  though  weary  of  the  oppressive  yoke  of 
the  Aztecs : Montezuma  was  a terrible  monarch,  who 
could  pour  down  his  warriors  upon  them.  But  Cortes 
gathered  encouragement  from  his  attitude,  and  in  the 
meantime  a juncture  had  been  effected  with  the  ships 
upon  the  coast  a few  leagues  distant,  at  a port  discovered 
by  Montejo.  Further  deliberations  took  place  during 
the  ensuing  days,  when  a momentous  event  occurred  in 
the  arrival  of  special  emissaries  from  Montezuma  to  the 
Cacique,  setting  forth  the  anger  of  the  Emperor,  and 
demanding  instant  reparation  and  tribute  for  the  dis- 
loyalty of  the  Totonacs  in  having  entertained  the 
invaders.  The  fearful  and  hesitating  Totonacs — it  was 
but  natural — would  have  appeased  their  anger ; but 
under  the  instigation  of  Cortes  these  Aztec  tax-collectors 
were  seized  and  imprisoned.  Characteristic  of  the 
Spaniard  of  those  days  was  the  act  of  double-dealing 
then  performed  by  Cortes.  He  secretly  released  the 
prisoners  at  night,  soothed  their  feelings,  sent  them 
on  board  a ship,  and  bid  them  report  his  goodwill 
to  Montezuma  ! 

The  Totonacs  were  now  too  deeply  compromised  to  do 
aught  but  become  the  sworn  allies  of  the  Spaniards.  The 
cherished  dream  of  the  return  of  Quetzacoatl  had  not 
been  fulfilled,  but  here  were  these  valiant  strangers,  who 
had  defied  the  omnipotent  Montezuma  ! The  Spaniards 


CORTES  AND  THE  CONQUEST  67 


then  established  a colony  upon  the  coast  near  at  hand, 
aided  by  the  natives,  and  a town  soon  arose  which  was  a 
centre  of  operations  and  general  point  of  distribution  for 
the  subsequent  operations.  Engaged  upon  the  work  was 
Cortes,  when  new  emissaries  arrived  from  the  outraged 
Montezuma.  The  Totonacs  were  only  to  be  spared  out  of 
deference  for  the  white  men  who  had  liberated  the  tax- 
collectors  ! Montezuma  was  debating  much  within  him- 
self and  with  his  advisers  at  this  time.  “ Surely  these 
terrible  white  strangers,  who  had  come  out  of  the  East, 
were  the  long-expected  Quetzacoatl  and  his  people  ? It 
was  necessary  to  placate  or  temporise  with  them,  for  what 
destiny  had  written  concerning  the  passing  of  his  empire 
must  come  to  pass."  So  had  pondered  the  great  Aztec 
chief,  and  it  was  this  fear  of  destiny  which  had  dictated 
his  attitude,  vacillating  as  it  was,  towards  the  strangers. 
But  the  emissaries  returned  to  the  lord  of  Anahuac  with 
the  same  message  as  before — that  the  white  men  would 
visit  him  in  person. 

Presents  of  wives — the  soft,  pretty  Indian  damsels, 
daughters  of  the  principal  chiefs — were  made  to  Cortes 
and  his  officers  by  the  Cacique,  in  gratitude  for  assist- 
ance against  a neighbouring  tribe,  which  the  Spaniards 
rendered.  They  must,  however,  be  baptized  first,  said 
Cortes,  and  the  opportunity  was  taken  to  enforce  the 
Christian  religion  upon  their  allies.  Protests  and  menace 
followed,  but  the  idols  of  Cempoalla  were  torn  from 
their  pyramid  sanctuaries  and  hurled  to  the  ground  ; the 
foul  sacrificial  altars  cleansed  ; the  image  of  the  Virgin 
installed  there  ; and  a solemn  Mass  celebrated  by  Father 
Olmedo. 

Other  stirring  events  crowded  rapidly  on.  A swift 
ship  was  despatched  to  Spain  with  the  wheel  of  gold  ; 
the  beautiful  feather-work,  and  the  other  rare  presents  of 
the  Aztecs,  all  given  over  by  the  Spaniards  as  a royal  gift 
to  the  young  Spanish  king ; together  with  a voluminous 
epistle.  This  was  sent  with  the  design  of  forestalling  the 
machinations  of  Velasquez ; and  though  the  vessel 
touched  at  Cuba,  it  escaped  detention,  and  safely 


68 


MEXICO 


arrived  in  Spain.  But  meantime  disaffection  arose  in 
the  new  colony,  and  a conspiracy  was  formed  to  seize  a 
vessel  and  escape  to  Cuba,  by  some  of  the  Spaniards  who 
were  discontented  and  fearful  of  the  future.  The  plot 
was  discovered  and  the  authors  seized  and  executed, 
and  a dramatic  sequel  to  this  conspiracy  came  about. 
Cortes  and  some  of  his  advisers  resolved  to  prevent  the 
recurrence  of  any  further  danger  of  this  nature ; to  put  it 
out  of  the  power  of  any  to  desert;  to  place  the  knowledge 
of  the  inevitable  before  his  troops,  that  the  conquest 
must  be  undertaken  or  death  found  in  the  attempt.  He 
sank  his  ships  ! Yes  ; the  brigantines  which  had  borne 
them  thither,  and  were  their  only  means  of  retreat  from 
those  savage  shores,  were  dismantled  and  destroyed. 

And  now  the  Spaniards  resolutely  turn  their  faces  to 
the  mountains.  Threats  and  entreaties  are  stilled ; the 
colony  is  established,  the  base  secured,  the  ships  are 
sunk,  save  that  single  white-winged  caravel  far  over  the 
waters  of  the  gulf,  prow  to  the  shores  of  Spain.  The 
Mass  is  said,  the  books  are  closed.  “Forward!  my 
comrades,”  said  Cortes;  “before  us  lies  a mountain  road; 
and  adventure,  gold,  and  glory  ! ” 

The  traveller  of  to-day,  as  he  traverses  by  rail  the 
desert  coast  zone  of  the  Mexican  littoral,  and  ascends  the 
steep  slopes  of  the  eastern  Cordillera  of  the  Sierra  Madre, 
to  gain  access  to  the  Great  Plateau  or  Valley  of  Mexico 
beyond  it,  reposing  amid  the  cushions  of  his  Pullman 
car,  will  neither  endure  the  fatigue  which  the  Con- 
quistadores  suffered  nor  be  assailed,  night  and  day,  with 
the  menace  of  savage  foes  on  every  hand.  But  the  grand 
and  varied  setting  still  remains  : the  strange  and  beautiful 
fairyland  of  Nature's  rapid  transformation  scenes,  the 
changing  landscape  and  successive  climates  of  this 
remarkable  region.  The  sandy  wastes  give  place  to 
tropical  forests  and  fertile  valleys,  with  their  bright 
accompaniment  of  profuse  flower-and  bird-life.  These, 
in  turn,  disappear  from  the  changing  panorama,  and  the 
traveller  reaches  the  appalling  escarpments  of  the 
Mexican  Andes,  looking  down  from  time  to  time  from 


THE  LAND  OF  THE  CONQUEST  : STATE  OF  VERA  CRUZ  : VIEW  ON  THE  MEXICAN  RAILWAY 
THE  TOWN  OF  MALTRATA  IS  SEEN  THOUSANDS  OF  FEET  BELOW. 


CORTES  AND  THE  CONQUEST  69 


dizzy  ridges,  where  the  ascending  steel  lines  of  the  rail- 
road spiral  has  brought  him,  to  where  distant  fertile 
vales  lie  in  the  glimmering  haze,  thousands  of  feet 
below.  And  then  the  scene  changes,  and  the  dark 
rocky  ribs  and  bleak  plateau  show  that  the  summit 
is  reached,  ten  thousand  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
ocean’s  ebb  and  flow. 

But  what  we  shall  have  accomplished  in  a day  the 
weary  Conquist adores  have  spent  many  marches  in  over- 
coming. Cortes  and  his  men  are  halting  at  the  end  of  a 
broad  valley.  What  is  the  cause  of  the  delay  ? An 
extraordinary  fortification  confronts  them  ; a wall,  twice 
as  high  as  a man,  made  of  stone  blocks,  and  of  enormous 
thickness,  absolutely  closes  the  passage  of  the  valley, 
and  extends  for  several  miles  on  either  hand  to  where 
it  abuts  upon  the  rocky  ramparts  of  the  Sierra  itself. 
Was  this  some  enchanted  castle  raised  up  by  magician 
hand  ? Certainly  not  ; it  was  the  outer  defence  of  the 
land  of  the  Tlascalans;  the  bulwark  of  the  brave  and 
independent  mountain  republic,  which  had  ever  defied 
the  power  of  the  Aztecs. 

To  reach  this  point  the  Spaniards  had  toiled  on  day 
after  day,  sleeping  at  night  upon  their  arms.  From  the 
tropical  lands  and  climate  of  the  tierra  caliente  they  had 
reached  the  frowning  fastnesses  of  the  great  mountains 
and  lofty  peaks,  which  overhang  the  crest  of  the  eastern 
slope  of  the  tableland  of  Mexico.  The  rainy  season  was 
upon  them,  and  the  trails  were  wet  and  heavy,  and  the 
atmosphere  and  humour  of  the  tropic  lands  had  been 
debilitating,  as  indeed  they  are  to  the  European  of  to- 
day. The  brusque  change  of  climate  from  heat  to  cold 
tried  them  sorely,  although  the  latter  was  the  more 
invigorating.  Day  by  day  a huge  coffin-shaped  mountain 
had  overhung  the  horizon — the  Cofre  de  Perote,  an 
extinct  volcano,  in  whose  vicinity  the  desolating  action 
of  old  lava-flows  startles  the  traveller’s  eye.  As  they 
reached  the  summit  of  the  range — the  crests  of  the 
Eastern  Sierra  Madre — the  rain  and  snow  and  bitter 
winds,  the  functions  of  Nature  which  she  ever  lets  loose 


70 


MEXICO 


upon  the  head  of  the  traveller  who  defies  her  in  such 
inclement  regions,  assailed  the  Spaniards,  and  some  of 
the  unfortunate  Indians,  natives  of  the  tropic  lands  of 
the  coast,  succumbed  to  the  cold.  On,  on  they  toiled 
up  this  untrodden  way — untrodden,  that  is,  by  the  foot  of 
civilised  man  before  that  day,  and  at  length,  having 
crossed  the  summit,  the  divortia  aquarian  of  the  con- 
tinent, they  began  the  descent  towards  the  mild  climate 
of  the  Valley  of  Mexico. 

Upon  the  confines  of  this  valley  was  a town  sur- 
rounded by  extensive  cultivated  fields  of  maiz.  Stone 
buildings,  numerous  teocallis,  and  a large  population 
attested  the  importance  of  the  place ; and  when  the 
Spaniards  asked  if  it  was  tributary  to  Montezuma  the 
chief  replied  with  another  question,  asking  with  surprise 
if  there  existed  any  other  lord  worthy  of  tribute.  Another 
chief  and  tribe  some  miles  beyond, gave  a good  reception  to 
the  Spaniards,  and  there  they  gladly  halted  for  some  days. 
The  house  of  the  chief  was  upon  a hill,  “protected  by  a 
better  fort  than  can  be  found  in  half  Spain,’’  wrote  Cortes 
to  his  Emperor  at  Castile.  Here  it  was  that  the  Spaniards 
received  news  of  the  existence  of  the  people  of  Cholula 
and  Tlascala,  who  inhabited  the  regions  of  their  in- 
tended line  of  march.  “ Go  by  the  road  of  the  Tlasca- 
lans,”  the  friendly  chief  advised;  “the  Cholulans  are  a 
treacherous  people.”  Cortes  despatched  messengers  to  the 
chief  of  Tlascala,  but  no  reply  was  received,  and  after 
waiting  some  days  the  Spaniards  continued  their  march, 
to  where  we  left  them  halting  before  the  stone  wall  across 
the  valley. 

And  then  began  the  most  stirring  events  of  their 
march.  The  Tlascalans  were  a people  who  had  de- 
veloped a remarkable  civilisation  and  social  and  military 
organisation,  akin  to  that  of  the  Aztecs.  On  the  arrival 
of  the  messengers  of  Cortes  much  dissension  had  pre- 
vailed in  their  councils,  some  of  the  chiefs — the  com- 
munity was  ruled  by  a council  of  four — maintaining  that 
this  was  an  opportunity  for  vengeance  against  their 
hereditary  enemies,  the  hated  Aztecs  and  their  prince 


CORTES  AND  THE  CONQUEST  71 


Montezuma.  “ Let  us  ally  ourselves  with  these  terrible 
strangers,”  they  urged,  “ and  march  against  the  Mexicans.” 
For  the  doings  of  the  Spaniards  had  echoed  through  the 
land  already,  with  a tale  of  smitten  tribes  and  broken 
idols.  But  the  wily  old  Xicotencatl  thought  otherwise. 
“ What  do  we  know  of  their  purpose  ? ” was  his  counsel ; 
so  it  was  agreed  that  the  army  of  the  Tlascalans  and 
Otomies,  who  were  in  force  near  the  frontier,  under 
the  command  of  the  fiery  young  warrior — son  of  old 
Xicotencatl,  and  bearing  the  same  name — should  attack 
them.  “ If  we  fail,”  the  old  barbarian  urged,  “we  will 
disavow  the  act  of  our  general ; if  we  win ” ! 

The  stone  fortification  at  the  valley’s  end  had  been 
undefended,  and  with  Cortes  at  their  head  the  Spaniards 
entered  Tlascalan  territory.  Skirmishing  was  followed 
by  a pitched  battle  between  the  Christians  and  the 
Tlascalans,  in  which  the  firearms  and  lances  of  the 
Spaniards  wrought  terrible  havoc  on  their  antagonists. 
Astounded  at  the  sight  of  the  horses — those  extraordinary 
beings,  whether  of  animal  or  demoniacal  origin  they 
knew  not — and  appalled  by  the  thundering  of  the  guns, 
which  seemed  to  have  some  superhuman  source,  the 
Tlascalans  at  first  fell  back.  But  they  overcame  their 
fears,  fell  savagely  upon  the  invaders,  and  were  with 
difficulty  repulsed,  having  managed  to  kill  two  of  the 
horses.  Greatly  to  Cortes’s  regret  was  this,  for  the  noble 
animals  were  few,  and — more  serious  still — their  death 
removed  that  semi-superstitious  dread  regarding  them, 
which  the  natives  held.  However,  the  Spaniards  after- 
wards buried  them  from  sight. 

Night  fell,  a season  when  the  Indians  fought  not,  but 
on  the  morrow  the  messengers  which  had  been  sent  to 
the  Tlascalans  arrived — having  escaped — with  the  news 
that  the  enemy  was  approaching  in  great  force.  So 
indeed  it  befel,  and  upon  the  plain  in  front  of  the 
Spaniards  appeared  a mighty  host,  varyingly  estimated 
between  thirty  and  a hundred  thousand  warriors.  The 
Spaniards  with  their  allies  numbered — fearful  odds  ! — 
about  three  thousand.  “ The  God  of  the  Christians  will 


72 


MEXICO 


bear  us  through,”  said  the  brave  and  beautiful  Marina. 
A frightful  battle  now  ensued,  the  issue  of  which  hung  in 
the  scale  for  hours.  Charging,  volleying,  borne  this  way 
and  that  by  the  flood  of  the  enemy’s  numbers,  the  gallant 
band  of  the  Spaniards  snatched  victory  from  almost 
certain  defeat,  their  superior  weapons  and  cavalry, 
together  with  the  bad  tactics  of  the  Indians,  who  knew 
not  how  to  employ  their  unwieldy  army  to  best  advan- 
tage, at  length  decided  the  day  for  the  Christians, 
who  inflicted  terrible  punishment  upon  their  foes.  The 
Tlascalans'  policy  now  showed  signs  of  weakening,  but 
further  assaults  were  necessary,  and  some  treachery, 
under  the  guise  of  friendship,  having  been  discovered 
on  the  part  of  the  fifty  Tlascalan  envoys  to  the  Spanish 
camp,  Cortes  barbarously  cut  off  the  hands  of  these  and 
sent  them  back  to  tell  the  tale. 

The  upshot  of  these  engagements  was  that  the  Tlas- 
calans capitulated,  apologised  for  their  conduct,  invited 
the  strangers  to  take  possession  of  their  capital,  and 
assured  them  that  they  would  now  be  allies,  not  enemies, 
of  the  white  men,  who  were  undoubtedly  the  representa- 
tives of  the  great  and  long-expected  Quetzacoatl.  The 
joy  in  the  Spanish  camp  at  this  turn  of  affairs  knew  no 
bounds  ; well  did  the  Spaniards  know  that  the  continued 
opposition  of  the  Indians  would  have  been  their  ruin, 
whilst  in  their  alliance  was  salvation  and  the  key  to  the 
Conquest. 

Behold  the  war-worn  and  hungry  Spaniards,  lean  and 
tattered  from  marching  and  privations  in  the  inclement 
uplands,  now  installed  in  comfort  in  the  centre  of  the 
powerful  Tlascalan  capital.  Forth  had  come  to  greet 
them  young  Xicotencatl,  who,  to  do  him  justice,  took 
upon  himself  the  responsibility  of  the  war ; and  as  the 
Spaniards  entered  the  capital  the  streets  were  lined  with 
men,  women,  and  children,  and  decorated  with  garlands 
of  flowers  as  for  a triumphal  procession.  The  old  chief 
who  had  urged  for  opposition  now  changed  his  tactics, 
and  as  Cortes  entered  he  embraced  him,  passing  his  hand 
over  the  face  of  the  Spaniard  to  see  what  manner  of  man 


CORTES  AND  THE  CONQUEST  73 

he  was,  for  the  aged  Tlascalan  was  blind,  having 
reached,  it  has  been  said — probably  with  exaggeration — 
a hundred  and  forty  years  of  age  ! “ The  city  is  much 

larger  than  Granada,”  wrote  Cortes  to  Carlos  V,,  with  a 
description  of  its  markets,  shops,  houses,  and  intelligent 
and  industrious  population. 

Six  weeks  the  Spaniards  sojourned  there,  recuperating 
their  energies,  living  on  the  best  the  plentiful  land 
afforded — Tlascala  signified  in  the  Indian  tongue  “the 
land  of  bread  ” — taking  wives  from  among  the  maidens 
of  the  chiefs'  daughters,  and  endeavouring,  first  with  the 
foolish  haste  of  Cortes  and  then  with  the  slow  prudence 
of  Father  Olmedo,  to  instil  some  tenets  of  the  Christian 
religion  into  their  hosts.  But  religious  fervour  had  to 
give  way  to  material  necessities,  and  the  Tlascalan  idols 
remained  unsmitten,  although  their  human  sacrifices 
were  somewhat  stayed. 

Rested  and  mended,  the  Spaniards  now  set  impatient 
gaze  upon  the  oak-  and  fir-clad  mountain  slopes  which 
bounded  the  valley.  Above  them  loomed  upward  the 
great  Malinche,  snow-capped  queen  of  the  Tlascalan 
mountain  fastnesses ; and  still  the  friendly  Tlascalans, 
stern  foes  but  noble  allies,  loaded  them  with  every  favour 
and  bid  them  tarry.  When,  however,  they  would  stay 
no  longer  they  raised  a great  body  of  warriors  to  accom- 
pany them,  warning  Cortez  against  the  wiles  of  Monte- 
zuma. “ Beware  of  his  presents  and  his  promises  ; he  is 
false  and  seeks  your  destruction,”  they  urged,  and  their 
implacable  hatred  of  the  Aztecs  showed  itself  in  their 
words  and  mien. 

Contrary  to  the  advice  of  their  new  allies,  the  Spaniards 
decided  to  journey  on  to  Mexico  through  Cholula,  the 
land  of  the  great  pyramid.  Embassies  had  arrived,  both 
from  Montezuma  and  from  the  Cholulans,  the  latter 
inviting  the  Spaniards  to  go  that  way ; and  the  great  Aztec 
monarch,  swayed  now  by  the  shadow  of  oncoming 
destiny,  offering  the  Spaniards  a welcome  to  his  capital. 
“Trust  not  the  Tlascalans,  those  barbarous  foes,”  was 
the  burden  of  his  message,  “ but  come  through  friendly 


74 


MEXICO 


Cholula  ” — words  which  the  Tlascalans  heard  with  sneers 
and  counter-advice.  The  purpose  of  the  Tlascalans  was 
not  a disinterested  one.  An  attack  upon  Montezuma 
was  their  desire,  and  preliminary  to  this  they  hoped  to 
embroil  the  Spaniards  with  the  perfidious  Cholulans. 
Another  embassy — and  this  was  an  important  event — 
had  waited  upon  Cortes.  It  was  from  the  Ixtlilxochitl, 
one  of  the  rival  claimants  for  the  throne  of  Texcoco, 
which,  it  will  be  remembered,  was  a powerful  and 
advanced  community  in  confederation  with  the  Aztecs ; 
and  Cortes  was  not  slow  to  fan  the  flame  of  disaffection 
which  this  indicated,  by  an  encouraging  message  to  the 
young  prince. 

A farewell  was  taken  of  the  staunch  Tlascalans,  the 
invariable  Mass  was  celebrated  by  Father  Olmedo,  and, 
accompanied  by  a large  body  of  Tlascalan  warriors,  the 
Spaniards  set  out  for  Cholula.  What  befel  in  this 
beautiful  and  populous  place — which,  Bernal  Diaz  wrote, 
reminded  him,  from  its  numerous  towers,  of  Valladolid — 
was  of  terrible  and  ruthless  import.  Cholula,  with  its 
great  teocalli,  was  the  Mecca  of  Anahuac,  and  was 
veritably  a land  flowing  with  milk  and  honey.  Well- 
built  houses,  numerous  teocallis,  or  pyramidal  temples, 
well-dressed  people  with  embroidered  cloaks,  and  num- 
bers of  censer-swinging  priests  formed  the  ensemble 
which  greeted  the  Spaniards’  eyes,  whilst  the  intense 
cultivation  of  the  ground  and  the  fields  of  maguey,  maiz, 
and  other  products,  irrigated  by  canals  from  the  mountain 
streams,  formed  the  environment  of  this  advanced  com- 
munity. “ Not  a palm’s-breadth  of  land  that  is  not 
cultivated,”  wrote  Cortes  in  his  despatches  to  Castile, 
“and  the  city,  as  we  approached,  was  more  beautiful 
than  the  cities  of  Spain.”  Beautiful  and  gay  doubtless 
Cholula  was  when  the  Spaniards  entered  ; drenched  with 
the  blood  of  its  inhabitants  and  devastated  by  fire  it  lay 
before  they  left  it ! There  had  been  signs  of  treachery, 
even  on  the  road  thither,  work  of  the  Cholulans ; but, 
lodged  in  the  city,  the  Spaniards  discovered,  through  the 
agency  of  the  intelligent  Marina,  a plot  to  annihilate 


CORTES  AND  THE  CONQUEST  75 


them  later.  Taking  the  Cholulans  unawares  as  they 
crowded  the  streets  with — at  the  moment — harmless 
curiosity,  the  Spaniards,  with  cannon,  musket,  and  sabre, 
mowed  down  the  unfortunate  and  unprotected  natives  in 
one  bloody  massacre,  aided  by  the  ferocious  Tlascalans, 
who  fell  upon  the  Cholulans  from  the  rear.  The  appall- 
ing and  unnecessary  slaughter  at  Cholula  has  called 
down  upon  the  heads  of  Cortes  and  the  Spaniards  the 
execration  of  historians.  Some  have  endeavoured  to 
excuse  or  palliate  it,  but  it  remains  as  one  of  the  indelible 
stains  of  the  Spanish  Conquistadores  upon  the  history 
they  were  making.  Having  accomplished  this  “ punitive  " 
act,  an  image  of  the  Virgin  was  set  up  on  the  summit  of 
the  great  pyramidal  temple,  and  some  order  restored. 
“They  are  now  your  Highness’s  faithful  vassals,”  wrote 
Cortes  to  the  king  of  Spain  ! 

After  this  the  way  seemed  clear.  Far  on  the  horizon 
loomed  the  white,  snow-capped  cones  of  Popocatepetl 
and  Ixtaccihuatl,  beautiful  and  pure  above  the  deserts, 
the  canyons,  and  the  forests  beneath  them — the  gateway 
to  Mexico.  From  the  foremost,  above  its  snow-cap, 
there  belched  forth  a great  column  of  smoke,  for  at  that 
period  Popocatepetl  was  an  active  volcano.  Onwards 
the  Spaniards  pressed  with  buoyant  hearts  and  eager  feet, 
and  when  they  stood  upon  the  summit  of  the  range  their 
eyes  beheld  the  beautiful  valley  of  Mexico,  the  haven 
for  which  they  had  long  toiled  and  fought,  stretched 
below.  There,  shimmering  in  distance,  lay  the  strange, 
unknown  city  of  the  Aztecs,  like  a gem  upon  the  borders 
of  its  lakes  : its  towers  and  buildings  gleaming  white 
in  the  brilliant  sun  of  the  tropic  upland  beneath  the 
azure  firmament  and  brought  to  deceptive  nearness  by 
the  clear  atmosphere  of  that  high  environment.  There 
at  last  was  their  longed-for  goal,  the  mysterious  Tenoch- 
titlan. 


CHAPTER  V 


THE  FALL  OF  THE  LAKE  CITY 


The  Valley  of  Mexico — The  City  and  the  Causeways — The  Conquista- 
dores  enter  Mexico  City — Meeting  of  Cortes  and  Montezuma — 
Greeting  of  the  Aztec  emperor  to  the  Spaniards — Tradition  of 
Quetzacoatl — Splendid  reception — The  Teocalli — Spanish  duplicity — 
Capture  of  Montezuma — Spanish  gambling — News  from  Vera  Cruz — 
Forced  march  to  the  coast — Cortes  defeats  Narvaez — Bad  news  from 
Mexico — Back  to  the  capital — Alvarado's  folly — Barbarous  acts  of  the 
Spaniards — The  fight  on  the  pyramid — Destruction  of  Aztec  idols — 
Death  of  Montezuma  — Spaniards  flee  from  the  city  — Frightful 
struggle  on  the  Causeway — Alvarado’s  leap — The  Noche  Triste — 
Battle  of  Otumba  — Marvellous  victory — Spanish  recuperation  — 
Cuitlahuac  and  Guatemoc — Fresh  operations  against  the  capital — 
Building  of  the  brigantines — Aztec  tenacity — Expedition  to  Cuer- 
navaca — Xochimilco  — Attack  upon  the  city  — Struggles  and 
reverses — Sacrifice  of  Spaniards — Desertion  of  the  Allies — Return 
of  the  Allies — Renewed  attacks — Fortitude  of  the  Aztecs — The 
famous  catapult — Sufferings  of  the  Aztecs — Final  attack — Appalling 
slaughter — Ferocious  Tlascalans — Fall  of  Mexico. 

The  Valley  of  Mexico  is  a region  of  somewhat  remarkable 
topographical  character.  It  consists  of  a plain  or  inter- 
montane  basin,  enclosed  on  all  sides  by  ranges  of  hills, 
forming  a hydrographic  entity  whose  waters  have  no 
natural  outlet.1  A group  of  lakes  occupy  the  central  part 
of  this  valley,  very  much  reduced,  however,  in  size  since 
the  time  of  the  Conquest. 

It  was  the  8th  of  November,  1519.  Across  the  southern 
end  of  the  great  Lake  Texcoco  stretched  a singular  dyke 
or  causeway,  several  miles  in  length  and  a few  yards 
in  width — a road  or  pathway  built  up  of  stone  and  mortar 

1 See  p.  17. 

76 


THE  LAKES  OF  THE  VALLEY  OF  MEXICO  AT  THE  TIME  OF  THE  COX- 
QUEST,  SHOWING  THE  CAUSEWAYS  TO  THE  AZTEC  ISLAND-CI1\  OF 
TENOCHTITLAN. 

(From  Prescott’s  “Conquest  of  Mexico,’’) 


[To  face  p.  76. 


THE  FALL  OF  THE  LAKE  CITY  77 


above  the  surrounding  water,  connecting  the  shores 
of  that  inland  sea  with  an  island  and  three  other  similar 
causeways.  Upon  this  island  arose  a beautiful  city  with 
streets  of  strange  buildings,  above  which  rose  great 
pyramids  with  sanctuaries  upon  their  summits ; and  upon 
the  bosom  of  the  lake  numerous  canoes  were  plying,  laden 
with  men  and  merchandise.  So  rose  those  towers,  and 
lived  and  moved  the  dwellers  of  this  lake  city,  unknowing 
and  unknown  of  European  man,  living  their  life  as  if  no 
other  world  than  theirs  held  sway  beneath  the  firmament 
of  the  “unknown  God.”  But  the  spell  is  broken.  A 
trumpet  sound  is  ringing  through  the  morning  air. 
Across  the  causeway  comes  a troop  of  strange  men- 
animals — fearful  things  which  snort  and  tramp,  making 
the  causeway  rumble,  whilst  the  notes  of  that  strange 
music  echo  away  among  the  towers  and  pyramids  of 
the  city,  and  are  borne  far  over  the  waters  of  the  lake,  to 
smite  the  ears  of  wondering  Indians. 

Cortes  and  his  Spaniards  rode  steadily  along  the 
causeway,  their  hearts  beating — as  well  they  might — 
with  astonishment,  admiration,  apprehension,  and  all 
those  emotions  to  which  their  unique  and  romantic 
position  gave  impulse.  Guided  by  the  messengers  of 
Montezuma,  the  white  men  rode  beneath  a fortification 
in  mid-causeway,  where  another  similar  structure  joined 
it  from  another  shore  of  the  lake,  passed  the  drawbridge 
and  the  city  walls,  and  clattered  up  the  stone-paved 
avenue  of  Tenochtitlan  to  where,  in  pomp  and  splendour, 
surrounded  by  his  lords  and  vassals,  the  great  Aztec  chief 
awaited  them,  in  a royal  litter  gleaming  with  polished 
gold. 

Cortes  and  his  men  dropped  foot  to  earth,  and  Monte- 
zuma descended  from  his  litter.  The  Spaniard  Conquis- 
tador, after  the  custom  of  his  race,  advanced  to  embrace 
the  chief,  “ but,”  wrote  Cortes  to  Charles  V.,  “ the  two 
lords  in  attendance  prevented  me  with  their  hands  that  I 
might  not  touch  him,  and  both  Montezuma  and  they 
performed  instead  their  ceremony  of  kissing  the  ground.” 

The  meeting  of  these  two  chiefs — one  the  autocrat  of  a 


78 


MEXICO 


strange,  unknown  civilisation  there  in  the  heart  of  the 
mountains,  the  other  the  representative  of  an  equally 
strange  and  unknown  power  from  an  outside  world, 
both,  to  the  other,  undreamt  of — is  of  dramatic  memory. 
But  the  address  of  Montezuma  was  singularly  dignified, 
prophetic,  or  philosophical.  After  the  presents  and  greet- 
ings were  exchanged,  and  the  monarch  and  the  invader 
sate  at  their  ease,  he  spake  in  this  wise  : “You  who 
have  come  from  the  direction  of  the  sunrise,  from  a great 
lord  of  some  far  regions,  shall  not  lack  power  here  to 
command,  for  well  we  know  as  to  our  ancestry  that  we 
are  not  of  the  aborigines  of  this  land  where  we  now  dwell, 
but  of  that  of  a great  lord — which  must  be  that  you 
represent — who  brought  us  here  in  ages  past,  departed, 
and  promised  to  return.  Rest  here,  therefore,  and  rejoice  ; 
take  what  you  will,  my  house  is  yours ; but  believe  not 
the  slanders  of  my  enemies  through  whose  countries  you 
have  journeyed.” 

So  strong  was  the  remarkable  tradition  of  Quetzacoatl, 
that  it  had  held  this  powerful  chief  and  his  warlike  people 
in  check  before  the  invasion  of  a band  of  adventurers 
from  abroad.  A word  of  command  from  him,  and  the 
Spaniards,  with  all  their  advantages  of  firearms  and 
horses,  could  never  have  passed  the  causeway  or  set 
foot  within  that  impregnable  city  of  Tenochtitlan — that 
fatal  causeway,  as  indeed  it  afterwards  became. 

Barbaric  splendour,  blended  with  the  arts  and  industries 
of  a civilised  and  practical  people,  formed  the  environ- 
ment of  this  long-striven-for  goal,  where  the  men  of 
Spain  now  lay  at  ease.  A great  pile  of  low  stone  build- 
ings gave  them  commodious  quarters.  Rich  gifts  of  gold 
and  clothing,  and  ample  food  supplies,  were  given  and 
provided  for  the  white  men  ; and  their  hearts,  whether  of 
the  high-mettled  and  scornful  cavaliers,  or  of  the  rude 
boors  who  formed  the  common  soldiery,  were  won  by 
the  gentle  courtesy  and  the  generosity  of  Montezuma  and 
the  respect  of  the  Aztecs  who  obeyed  him.  Even  the 
savage  and  hated  Tlascalan  allies  were  lodged  and  pro- 
vided for — their  detested  presence  tolerated  from  con- 


THE  FALL  OF  THE  LAKE  CITY  79 


sideration  for  the  Spaniards.  Here  was  an  unhoped-for 
and  magnificent  reception.  Here  was  a way  and  a time 
where  the  civilisation  and  religion  of  the  Christian  world 
might  have  been  implanted — it  would  seem — by  the 
philosophy  of  natural  methods,  by  forbearance,  example, 
and  sagacity.  So,  at  least,  have  thought  some  of  the  old 
chroniclers — so  the  student  of  to-day  cannot  but  think. 

But  it  was  not  to  be  so.  The  heart  of  the  thinker 
bleeds  to-day  for  the  things  of  history  which  might 
have  been  ; and  the  story  of  Montezuma  is  strong  to 
give  us  philosophical  regret.  Some  six  days  elapsed  in 
this  peaceful  occupation  of  the  city.  Cortes  and  his 
Spaniards  admired  the  huge  market-place,  where  pro- 
ducts from  all  quarters  of  the  country  were  brought 
together : food,  clothing,  weapons,  manufactured  articles 
of  rich  material  and  colour,  objects  of  gold,  and  a wealth 
of  flowers  which  the  inhabitants  loved,  stone  buildings 
which  lined  the  streets,  the  canals  and  streets  which  gave 
access  thereto,  and,  in  brief,  the  whole  detail  and  substance 
of  that  remarkable  centre  of  a semi-civilisation  which  the 
Spaniards  commonly  pronounced  the  equal  of  anything 
in  their  own  native  land.  In  company  with  Montezuma 
Cortes  ascended  the  great  teocalli,  or  pyramidal  temple, 
and  he  and  his  companion,  from  this  high  point,  beheld 
with  amazement  the  panorama  of  the  city  below — with 
the  lakes,  the  causeways  giving  access  to  the  mainland, 
the  towns  on  the  farther  side,  and  the  intense  cultivation 
of  the  valley.  “ Only  the  murmur  of  the  people  below 
reached  our  ears,  as  we  gazed  upon  this  panorama,”  wrote 
Bernal  Diaz,  who  was  there.  To  the  chiefs  who  had 
been  ordered  to  carry  Cortes  up  the  fatiguing  stairway- 
ascent  of  the  pyramid,  and  to  the  polite  inquiries  of 
Montezuma,  the  Conquistador  replied,  “ that  a Spaniard 
was  never  weary  ! ” “ But  this  abode  of  the  devil,”  he 

said,  with  less  politic  words,  which  somewhat  offended 
Montezuma — indicating  the  blood-stained  sanctuary  of 
the  summit  where  they  stood — “ should  rather  be  the 
home  of  the  Cross  ” ; and,  indeed,  the  abominable  place 
might  well  arouse  the  indignation  of  a Christian  man  : 


78 


MEXICO 


strange,  unknown  civilisation  there  in  the  heart  of  the 
mountains,  the  other  the  representative  of  an  equally 
strange  and  unknown  power  from  an  outside  world, 
both,  to  the  other,  undreamt  of — is  of  dramatic  memory. 
But  the  address  of  Montezuma  was  singularly  dignified, 
prophetic,  or  philosophical.  After  the  presents  and  greet- 
ings were  exchanged,  and  the  monarch  and  the  invader 
sate  at  their  ease,  he  spake  in  this  wise  : “ You  who 
have  come  from  the  direction  of  the  sunrise,  from  a great 
lord  of  some  far  regions,  shall  not  lack  power  here  to 
command,  for  well  we  know  as  to  our  ancestry  that  we 
are  not  of  the  aborigines  of  this  land  where  we  now  dwell, 
but  of  that  of  a great  lord — which  must  be  that  you 
represent — who  brought  us  here  in  ages  past,  departed, 
and  promised  to  return.  Rest  here,  therefore,  and  rejoice  ; 
take  what  you  will,  my  house  is  yours ; but  believe  not 
the  slanders  of  my  enemies  through  whose  countries  you 
have  journeyed.” 

So  strong  was  the  remarkable  tradition  of  Quetzacoatl, 
that  it  had  held  this  powerful  chief  and  his  warlike  people 
in  check  before  the  invasion  of  a band  of  adventurers 
from  abroad.  A word  of  command  from  him,  and  the 
Spaniards,  with  all  their  advantages  of  firearms  and 
horses,  could  never  have  passed  the  causeway  or  set 
foot  within  that  impregnable  city  of  Tenochtitlan — that 
fatal  causeway,  as  indeed  it  afterwards  became. 

Barbaric  splendour,  blended  with  the  arts  and  industries 
of  a civilised  and  practical  people,  formed  the  environ- 
ment of  this  long-striven-for  goal,  where  the  men  of 
Spain  now  lay  at  ease.  A great  pile  of  low  stone  build- 
ings gave  them  commodious  quarters.  Rich  gifts  of  gold 
and  clothing,  and  ample  food  supplies,  were  given  and 
provided  for  the  white  men  ; and  their  hearts,  whether  of 
the  high-mettled  and  scornful  cavaliers,  or  of  the  rude 
boors  who  formed  the  common  soldiery,  were  won  by 
the  gentle  courtesy  and  the  generosity  of  Montezuma  and 
the  respect  of  the  Aztecs  who  obeyed  him.  Even  the 
savage  and  hated  Tlascalan  allies  were  lodged  and  pro- 
vided for — their  detested  presence  tolerated  from  con- 


THE  FALL  OF  THE  LAKE  CITY  79 


sideration  for  the  Spaniards.  Here  was  an  unhoped-for 
and  magnificent  reception.  Here  was  a way  and  a time 
where  the  civilisation  and  religion  of  the  Christian  world 
might  have  been  implanted — it  would  seem — by  the 
philosophy  of  natural  methods,  by  forbearance,  example, 
and  sagacity.  So,  at  least,  have  thought  some  of  the  old 
chroniclers — so  the  student  of  to-day  cannot  but  think. 

But  it  was  not  to  be  so.  The  heart  of  the  thinker 
bleeds  to-day  for  the  things  of  history  which  might 
have  been  ; and  the  story  of  Montezuma  is  strong  to 
give  us  philosophical  regret.  Some  six  days  elapsed  in 
this  peaceful  occupation  of  the  city.  Cortes  and  his 
Spaniards  admired  the  huge  market-place,  where  pro- 
ducts from  all  quarters  of  the  country  were  brought 
together : food,  clothing,  weapons,  manufactured  articles 
of  rich  material  and  colour,  objects  of  gold,  and  a wealth 
of  flowers  which  the  inhabitants  loved,  stone  buildings 
which  lined  the  streets,  the  canals  and  streets  which  gave 
access  thereto,  and,  in  brief,  the  whole  detail  and  substance 
of  that  remarkable  centre  of  a semi-civilisation  which  the 
Spaniards  commonly  pronounced  the  equal  of  anything 
in  their  own  native  land.  In  company  with  Montezuma 
Cortes  ascended  the  great  teocalli,  or  pyramidal  temple, 
and  he  and  his  companion,  from  this  high  point,  beheld 
with  amazement  the  panorama  of  the  city  below — with 
the  lakes,  the  causeways  giving  access  to  the  mainland, 
the  towns  on  the  farther  side,  and  the  intense  cultivation 
of  the  valley.  “ Only  the  murmur  of  the  people  below 
reached  our  ears,  as  we  gazed  upon  this  panorama,”  wrote 
Bernal  Diaz,  who  was  there.  To  the  chiefs  who  had 
been  ordered  to  carry  Cortes  up  the  fatiguing  stairway- 
ascent  of  the  pyramid,  and  to  the  polite  inquiries  of 
Montezuma,  the  Conquistador  replied,  “ that  a Spaniard 
was  never  weary  ! ” “ But  this  abode  of  the  devil,”  he 

said,  with  less  politic  words,  which  somewhat  offended 
Montezuma — indicating  the  blood-stained  sanctuary  of 
the  summit  where  they  stood — “ should  rather  be  the 
home  of  the  Cross  ” ; and,  indeed,  the  abominable  place 
might  well  arouse  the  indignation  of  a Christian  man  : 


80 


MEXICO 


even  one  of  that  race  and  religion  which  later,  in  the 
same  place,  burned  its  own  brethren  at  the  stake  for  the 
good  of  their  souls  ! 

A few  days  wrought  a change.  Montezuma  became  a 
prisoner  in  the  Spanish  camp  ! In  the  heart  of  his  own 
city,  surrounded  by  his  powerful  chiefs  and  armies,  the 
Aztec  languished  in  vile,  if  seemingly  voluntary,  durance  ; 
and,  an  instrument  in  the  invaders’  hands,  he  governed 
his  realm  from  their  quarters.  How  was  this  astonishing 
transformation  brought  about  ? Cortes  and  his  com- 
panions were  in  a singular  position.  Living  in  friendly 
harmony  with  their  powerful  host,  shielded  by  his  strange, 
superstitious  reverence  for  a tradition,  they  yet  could  not 
but  fear  some  change  of  circumstance  which  might,  at 
any  moment,  plunge  them  into  insecurity  or  threaten 
them  with  destruction.  Moreover,  Cortes  knew  not  in 
what  condition  he  stood  with  the  dreaded  powers  of 
Castile.  What  favour  or  disfavour  had  he  incurred  in 
Spain  for  his  irregular  proceedings  ? — adverse  representa- 
tion of  which,  he  well  knew,  would  have  been  made  by 
Velasquez  and  others,  jealous  of  the  conquest.  Also — 
and  this  was  a more  poignant  consideration  than  any 
other — Mexico  was  not  conquered  ; it  was  only  dis- 
covered. Action  was  necessary — to  go  or  stay. 
“ Listen,”  said  Cortes  to  his  captains,  as  they  held 
solemn  conclave.  “This  is  my  plan.  We  will  seize 
and  hold  Montezuma.  What  say  you  ? ” It  was  done. 
For  a pretext  for  this  unworthy  act  the  murder  of  two 
Spaniards  upon  an  expedition  at  Vera  Cruz  was  assigned. 
Visiting  Montezuma’s  residence  under  pretence  of  asking 
redress  for  this — which  was  fully  granted  by  the  Aztec 
king,  with  absolute  proofs  of  his  non-participation  in 
the  occurrence — the  Spaniards  demanded  that  he  should 
accompany  them  to  their  camp  and  take  up  his  residence 
there. 

This  remarkable  request  was  acceded  to  by  the  weak 
Montezuma — let  us  not  say  weak,  but  rather  fatalist — and, 
accompanied  by  his  weeping  vassals,  he  allowed  himself 
to  be  conducted  to  the  stone  fortress  which  had  been 


THE  FALL  OF  THE  LAKE  CITY  81 


assigned  to  the  Spaniards  as  their  habitation.  The  cir- 
cumstance is  perhaps  unique  in  history. 

And  then  the  barbarous  abuse  of  power,  so  strong  a 
trait  in  the  Spanish  character,  was  exercised  by  Cortes 
and  his  captains.  The  chiefs  who  had  been  responsible 
for  the  killing  of  the  two  Spaniards  arrived  in  the 
capital  in  accordance  with  Montezuma's  summons.  The 
Spaniards  seized  them,  bound  them  to  stakes  in  the 
courtyard,  and  burned  them  alive,  an  abominable  act  and 
stain  upon  their  name,  for  which  they  paid  dearly  after- 
wards. Montezuma  had  been  put  in  chains,  the  prisoners 
having  confessed,  although  falsely,  it  is  held,  that  they 
had  acted  in  accordance  with  the  Emperor’s  instructions. 
Afterwards  Montezuma's  shackles  were  taken  off,  but  the 
indignity  remained,  although  the  Spaniards  treated  him 
well  and  endeavoured  to  render  his  captivity  light,  not  so 
much  out  of  regard  for  him,  as  that  the  safe  keeping  of 
his  person  was  a valuable  hostage  for  them. 

The  days  went  on  in  the  Spanish  camp.  There  was 
gaming  with  the  huge  treasure  which,  after  his  captivity, 
Montezuma  gave  the  Spaniards  ; a treasure  of  which  the 
gold,  in  three  great  heaps  upon  the  floor  of  the  habitation, 
was  of  value  so  prodigious  as  to  dazzle  even  them, 
and  of  which  a fifth  was  set  apart  for  the  Spanish 
king.  Not  content  with  these  matters,  or,  rather,  urged 
by  their  religious  fervour,  the  Spaniards  obtained  per- 
mission to  erect  an  altar  and  crucifix  in  one  of  the 
sanctuaries  of  the  great  teocalli.  There  Father  Olmedo 
celebrated  Mass,  and  the  Te  Deurn  was  chanted  by  the 
soldiers,  side  by  side  with  the  sacrificial  stone ; the 
abominable  war-god’s  image,  and  all  the  attendant 
machinery  of  its  savage  priestcraft. 

But  a time  of  change  looms  up.  Six  months  have 
elapsed  since  the  Spaniards  entered  the  city.  The  un- 
natural condition  of  these  things  bears  its  fruit.  The 
Aztec  king  has  sounded  the  knell  of  his  own  authority  and 
prestige,  and  the  Spaniards'  religious  work  has  incurred 
the  hatred  of  the  seething  multitude,  scarcely  held  in  check 
by  the  commands  of  Montezuma.  Cortes  and  most  of 

7 


82 


MEXICO 


his  captains  at  this  critical  time  are  called  to  Vera  Cruz 
by  Sandoval,  the  captain  in  charge  ; and  go  they  must, 
for  life  or  death.  For  hostile  ships,  sent  by  the  jealous 
Velasquez  and  commanded  by  one  Narvaez,  menace  the 
base  of  operations  on  the  coast.  Leaving  Alvarado  in 
charge  of  Montezuma  and  Spanish  prestige  in  Tenoch- 
titlan,  Cortes  by  forced  marches  gained  the  coast, 
journeying  with  great  speed,  and  under  grave  appre- 
hension. 

Fortune  on  this  occasion  favoured  the  Conquistador 
in  a remarkable  way.  With  only  a third  of  his  small 
force — 140  men  had  remained  in  the  capital — Cortes, 
under  cover  of  a fearful  storm  at  night,  attacked  Narvaez 
and  the  Spaniards  of  his  command,  routing  them  and 
taking  the  leader  prisoner.  The  defeated  soldiers  soon 
enrolled  themselves  under  Cortes’s  successful  banner, 
stimulated  by  tales  of  gold  and  glory  in  the  interior. 
But  whilst  the  Conquistadores  were  resting  and  congratu- 
lating themselves  upon  the  addition  of  men,  horses,  and 
ammunition  to  their  forces,  grave  tidings  came  from 
Mexico.  The  Indians  of  Tenochtitlan  had  arisen, 
assaulted  the  fortifications  of  the  Spaniards  on  all  sides, 
and  unless  Cortes  desired  to  see  all  his  work  undone, 
his  people  massacred,  and  his  hard-won  prestige  ruined, 
he  must  make  his  way  as  fast  as  God  would  let  him  again 
to  the  city  on  the  lakes  of  Anahuac. 

Up,  up  they  went  once  more.  Up  through  the  tropical 
forests  and  among  the  appalling  escarpments  of  the 
Sierra.  Again  they  descended  the  valley  slopes, 
approached  the  lakes — round  which  an  ominous  aban- 
donment prevailed  — and  crossing  the  long  causeway, 
entered  the  Spanish  camp.  The  fault  of  the  insurrec- 
tion, Cortes  learned  now,  lay  with  the  commander  in 
charge — the  foolish  and  cruel  Alvarado,  whose  barbarous 
acts  on  other  occasions  had  needlessly  embroiled  the 
Spaniards  with  the  natives.  A great  celebration  and 
religious  festival  was  being  held — Cortes  learned — and 
whilst  the  Aztec  nobles  and  people  were  occupied,  unsus- 
pecting any  hostile  act  of  their  guests,  Alvarado  and  the 


THE  FALL  OF  THE  LAKE  CITY  83 


Spaniards,  armed  to  the  teeth,  had  mingled  with  the 
crowd  with  their  purpose  all  planned,  fallen  upon  the 
unarmed  worshippers,  and  perpetrated  a frightful  mas- 
sacre— “ without  pity  or  Christian  mercy,  so  that  the 
gutters  ran  with  blood  as  in  a rain-storm,”  say  the 
chroniclers. 

The  result  of  this  barbarous  act  was  a vengeance  and 
punishment  which  cost  the  Conquistadores  dear,  and 
stripped  them  in  a few  days  of  all  they  had  won.  For 
the  maddened  people,  roused  by  sorrow  and  hate,  and 
urged  on  by  the  priests,  assailed  the  Spanish  dwelling 
with  frenzied  attack.  A rain  of  darts  and  missiles  de- 
scended day  after  day  upon  the  quarters  of  the  Christians, 
so  numerous  that  they  had  to  be  gathered  in  heaps  and 
burnt  in  the  courtyard.  The  main  point  of  attack  by  the 
Mexicans  was  the  great  teocalli  of  the  war-god,  which  over- 
looked the  Spaniards’  quarters,  and  so  fierce  was  the  hail 
of  arrows  and  stones  from  this  that  a sortie  was  made. 
Cortes,  with  Sandoval  and  Alvarado,  and  a number  of  the 
Spaniards,  led  a gallant  attack  on  the  pyramid,  fought 
their  way  up  its  precipitous  steps  and  terraces,  and  after 
a frightful  hand-to-hand  struggle  on  its  giddy  summit, 
forced  the  Aztecs  and  their  priests  over  the  edge,  and 
rolled  the  infernal  idol  of  Huitzilopotchli,  the  war-god, 
down  among  the  people  in  the  streets  below. 

Impressed  as  they  were  by  the  destruction  of  their 
temple  and  god — an  event  which  was  rapidly  circulated 
about  the  country  by  hieroglyphical  paintings — the  Aztecs 
abated  nothing  of  their  attack  and  siege  of  the  hated 
white  men.  All  superstitious  fear  had  gone,  and  the  true 
character  of  these  people  the  Spaniards  had  now  to  learn. 
Day  after  day  the  barbarians  came  on.  Sortie  after  sortie, 
sometimes  with  success,  sometimes  with  severe  loss,  was 
made  by  the  Christians,  Cortes  more  than  once  barely 
escaping  with  his  life,  while  numerous  Spaniards  and 
horses  fell.  The  labyrinth  of  streets  and  cross-canals  and 
bridges  much  hampered  the  Spaniards’  movements,  and 
houses  and  walls  were  torn  down  to  fill  these  fatal  ditches. 
Distress  and  famine  fell  upon  the  garrison,  mutiny  arose, 


84 


MEXICO 


and  some  of  the  Spaniards  cursed  themselves  and  their 
leader  as  fools  for  having  left  their  comfortable  homes  in 
Cuba  to  embark  on  this  mad  enterprise,  whose  termina- 
tion seemed  as  if  it  might  be — as  indeed  it  was  for  many 
of  them — the  sacrificial  stone  of  the  heathen  god. 

But  Cortes,  intrepid  and  serene  in  the  face  of  disaster, 
called  them  to  order.  The  unfortunate  Montezuma,  who, 
buried  in  a profound  melancholy,  took  no  part  in  the 
struggle,  was  urged  to  address  his  frenzied  people  from 
the  tower  of  the  fortification.  He  consented,  and  the 
Aztec  warriors  without  the  walls  gazed  with  astonishment 
on  their  captured  chief,  and  heard  with  still  greater  amaze- 
ment his  commands  that  strife  against  the  white  man 
should  cease.  But  the  power  of  his  name  and  presence 
was  gone  ; howls  and  execration  arose  from  the  mob  ; 
a stone  from  a sling  struck  Montezuma  upon  the  fore- 
head, and  he  sank  back  into  the  arms  of  the  Spaniards 
and  was  borne  to  his  quarters.  For  a space,  the  mob, 
horror-struck  at  its  sacrilegious  act,  fled  from  the  place, 
and  not  a man  was  seen  within  the  square  that  day. 
Montezuma,  sorely  stricken,  declined  rapidly,  and  refusing 
the  attentions  of  Father  Olmedo,  who  knelt  at  his  bedside 
with  uplifted  crucifix,  sank  to  his  end.  “ Half  an  hour  of 
life  alone  remains  me  ; at  least  I will  die  in  the  faith  of 
my  forefathers,”  he  said,  adding  in  expiring  tones  to 
Cortes,  his  last  words:  “To  your  care  and  your 

Emperor’s  I commend  my  daughters,  my  precious 
jewels.  You,  for  whose  sake  I have  been  brought  to 
indignity  and  death,  will  not  refuse  me  this  last  re- 
quest.” So  perished  the  noble  Montezuma.1 

The  bridges  broken,  the  savages  screaming  outside  the 
walls,  hope  of  victory  gone,  there  was  now  no  counsel  of 
war  for  the  Spaniards  save  that  of  escape.  But  how  ? 
At  night  and  along  the  great  causeway  was  the  only  plan. 
A weird  scene  it  was  on  the  beginning  of  that  Noche  Triste 


1 It  is  stated  by  some  historians  that  the  death  of  Montezuma  was  really 
brought  about  by  Cortes  and  the  Spaniards,  who,  considering  the  unfortu- 
nate monarch  an  incumbrance,  killed  him  in  captivity  ; and  there  are 
grounds  for  suspecting  that  this  is  true. 


THE  FALL  OF  THE  LAKE  CITY  85 


— the  sorrowful  night — which  stands  forth  so  unforget- 
ably  in  the  history  of  the  Conquest.  Disorder  everywhere  ; 
piles  of  gold  and  valuables  upon  the  floor,  each  Spaniard, 
whether  cavalier  or  boor,  loading  himself  with  what  he 
thought  he  could  carry.  “ Pocket  what  you  can,”  Cortes 
said,  “but  recollect  that  gold  is  heavy  and  we  have  to 
travel  swiftly  ” — grave  advice,  the  neglect  of  which  cost 
some  their  lives  upon  that  awful  night. 

And  then  began  the  retreat  along  the  fatal  causeway. 
It  was  known  that  there  were  three  openings  in  this,  and 
a portable  bridge  had  been  made  and  was  borne  along 
to  enable  passage  to  be  effected.  Hurrying  on  in  the 
hope  of  passing  the  breaches  before  alarm  might  be  given, 
the  Spaniards  entered  upon  the  causeway  and  placed 
their  portable  bridge  upon  the  first  breach.  Was  safety 
to  be  theirs  ? No  ! What  was  that  appalling  sound, 
sonorous  and  melancholy,  which  rang  over  the  city  and 
the  waters  amid  the  darkness  ? It  was  the  great  drum 
on  the  teocalli;  the  tambor  of  the  war-god,  sounded  by 
vigilant  priests,  calling  the  people  to  vengeance  and 
battle.  And  in  their  myriads  the  Aztecs  poured  forth 
and  fell  upon  the  Christians,  raining  darts  and  stones 
upon  them,  and  making  the  night  hideous  with  their 
war-cries.  Meanwhile  Cortes  and  the  advance  guard  had 
passed  over,  and  reached  the  second  breach.  “ Bring 
up  the  bridge  ! ” was  the  repeated  order,  as  those  behind 
crowded  on.  Useless  ; the  bridge  was  stuck  fast  in  the 
first  breach,  wedged  down  by  the  weight  of  guns  and 
horses  which  had  passed  over  it,  and  as  these  dread 
tidings  were  heard  the  mass  of  men  upon  the  narrow 
causeway  lost  their  presence  of  mind.  Those  behind 
crowded  on  those  in  front ; men  and  horses  rolled  into 
the  lake  ; Spaniards  and  Tlascalans  fell  victims  to  the 
Aztecs,  who  crowded  the  water  in  their  canoes  and 
leapt  upon  the  causeway  ; the  shouts  of  vengeance  and 
triumph  of  the  savages  resounded  all  along  the  dyke, 
silencing  the  muttered  oath  or  prayer  of  the  Christians 
huddled  at  the  breach.  Down  went  horse  and  man, 
artillery  and  treasure,  until  with  the  bodies  of  Christians 


86 


MEXICO 


and  Indians  and  horses,  and  bales  of  merchandise  and 
chests  of  ammunition  the  breach  was  almost  filled,  and 
a portion  of  the  fugitives  passed  over.  And  now  the 
third  breach  yawns  before  them — deep  and  wide.  The 
morning  is  dawning  upon  the  fatal  scene  ; the  salt  waters 
of  the  lake  have  closed  over  many  a gallant  Christian 
head ; the  frightful  causeway  is  strewn  with  wreck  of 
man  and  merchandise.  “ The  rear  guard  perishes !”  and 
“ back  and  save  them  ! " were  the  words  which  rang  out 
then  ; and  Cortes  and  his  remaining  cavaliers,  who  were 
in  the  lead,  rode  back,  even  in  that  frightful  hour — be 
it  recorded  to  their  honour — and,  swimming  the  breach 
once  more,  strove  to  support  their  comrades.  There 
stood  Alvarado  unhorsed  and  battling,  with  the  savages 
pressing  upon  his  rear.  Escape  there  seemed  none. 
Canoes  and  spears  teemed  on  every  side,  and  Cortes 
and  his  companions  were  forced  onward.  The  heroic 
figure  of  Alvarado  stood  up  against  the  grey  sky  alone — 
a moment — and  then  he  measured  the  breach  with  his 
eye,  whilst — 


“ Friends  and  foes  in  dumb  surprise 
With  parted  lips  and  straining  eyes 
Stood  gazing,” — 

but  not  “where  he  sank,”  for  sink  he  did  not.1  Planting 
his  lance  on  the  wreckage  in  the  waters  of  the  breach, 
after  the  manner  of  a leaping-pole,  the  heroic  Spaniard 
collected  his  energies,  leapt  forward,  and  passed  the 
chasm  at  a bound.  To  this  day,  in  the  City  of  Mexico, 
the  spot  exists,  and  is  known  as  the  puente  de  Alvarado. 

Away  off  the  causeway  into  the  grey  dawn  of  morning 
passed  the  remnant  of  the  routed  army,  wounded, 
bleeding,  starving,  their  comrades  gone,  some  to  death, 
some  to  the  sacrifice,  and  annihilation  threatening  all. 
Baggage  and  artillery  were  gone,  not  a carbine  was  left, 
and  Cortes,  seating  himself  upon  the  steps  of  a ruined 

1 It  is  stated  that  the  Aztecs  paused  in  admiration  of  this  feat,  whilst  “ the 
Son  of  the  Sun,”  as  they  termed  Alvarado,  from  his  fair  hair  and  rubicund 
visage,  performed  this  extraordinary  leap  ; considering  it  miraculous. 


(From  the  painting  by  Ramirez.)  [To  face  p.  87. 


THE  FALL  OF  THE  LAKE  CITY  87 


temple  on  the  shore,  wept  bitter  tears  of  sorrow  and 
vanished  fortune.  So  passed  the  Noche  Triste. 

The  next  great  event  of  this  remarkable  campaign  was 
the  battle  of  Otumba.  The  wretched  soldiers,  having 
obtained  what  rest  and  nourishment  were  possible,  con- 
tinued their  retreat  around  the  northern  part  of  the  lake 
valley  ; passed  beneath  the  shadow  of  the  pyramids  of 
Teotihuacan — standing  ever  there  ruined  and  wrapped 
in  the  mystery  of  their  prehistoric  builders — and  seven 
days  after  the  events  of  that  awful  night  crossed  the 
summit  of  the  range  which  bounds  the  plain  of 
Anahuac.  Thence  they  set  their  gaze  eastwards  to- 
wards the  coast.  What  was  it  that  greeted  their  eyes 
on  the  plain  below  ? A mighty  army  of  warriors  whose 
hosts  absolutely  covered  the  plain  with  glowing  lance 
and  waving  plumes — the  forces  of  the  warlike  Otomies. 
So  numerous  were  they  that,  dressed  in  their  armour 
of  white  quilted  cotton,  it  “looked  as  if  the  land  was 
covered  with  snow,”  as  the  historians  put  it.  There 
was  nothing  for  it  but  to  face  these  fearful  odds,  and, 
weakened  as  they  were,  the  remnant  of  the  Spanish 
force,  encouraged  by  their  leader  and  exhorted  by  their 
priest,  fell  valiantly  on.  They  were  soon  wrapped  in 
the  enfolding  masses  of  the  savages,  who  attacked  them 
with  the  utmost  ferocity.  The  cavalry  fell  back  ; the 
Spaniards  were  stricken  on  every  side,  and  absolute 
disaster  hung  over  them.  “We  believed  it  to  be  our 
last  day,”  Cortes  wrote  to  Spain  afterwards.  But  the 
tide  of  battle  changed  miraculously.  In  a last  furious 
charge  Cortes,  followed  by  the  few  officers  who  re- 
mained, leaped  upon  the  foe,  reached  the  litter  of  their 
chief,  and,  running  him  through  the  body  with  a 
lance,  tore  down  the  standard.  This  act  saved  the  day. 
Stricken  with  panic  at  the  loss  of  their  leader,  the 
Indians  fell  into  disorder,  threw  down  their  arms,  and 
turned  and  fled.  Hot  upon  them,  and  thirsting  for 
revenge,  poured  the  Spaniards  and  Tiascalans — it  is  to 
be  recollected  that  the  Christians  had  no  firearms  nor 
artillery — and  utterly  routed  them.  The  victory  of 


88 


MEXICO 


Otumba  is  considered  one  of  the  most  remarkable  in 
the  history  of  the  New  World. 

Their  fortunes  thus  somewhat  ameliorated,  the 
Spaniards  continued  onward  to  Tlascala,  where  they 
were  received  with  the  utmost  hospitality,  and  there 
they  recuperated  their  shattered  energies.  Further 
alliance  was  entered  into  with  these  people,  despite 
embassies  from  the  Aztecs.  Further  operations  were 
successfully  conducted  against  the  powerful  Tepeacans — 
allies  of  the  Aztecs — who  were  beaten,  and  transferred 
their  allegiance  to  the  men  of  Castile.  These  successes 
were  followed  by  others;  the  Tlascalans  in  a severe 
battle  defeated  a large  force  of  the  Aztecs ; numerous 
other  tribes,  influenced  by  these  matters,  sent  to  offer 
their  allegiance,  and  a vast  part  of  the  country  was 
soon  under  the  authority  of  the  Spaniards.  The  in- 
trepid and  persistent  spirit  of  Cortes,  undismayed  by 
the  reverses  which  the  attempted  conquest  of  Mexico 
had  cost  him  and  his  followers,  now  laid  his  plans  for 
a further  campaign  against  the  lake-city  of  Anahuac. 
Over  Tenochtitlan  there  had  reigned  a master-enemy, 
to  whose  work  had  been  due  the  frightful  reverses  of 
the  “ sorrowful  night ” and  the  battle  of  Otumba.  This 
was  Cuitlahuac,  brother  of  Montezuma.  But  having 
saved  his  capital  from  falling  before  the  detested 
white  men,  this  capable  prince  expired  from  smallpox 
— a disease  introduced  into  the  country  by  the  invaders 
— after  a few  months’  reign.  In  his  stead  now  arose 
the  famous  Guatemoc,  Montezuma’s  nephew,  and  he 
also  had  sworn  a deep  hatred  against  the  ravishers  of 
his  country. 

Up,  up  once  more,  away  over  the  rocky  fastnesses 
of  the  sierra,  followed  by  his  allies,  the  flower  of  the 
armies  of  Tlascala,  Tepeaca,  and  Cholula,  Cortes  and 
his  Spaniards  pressed.  But  his  measures  this  time  had 
been  taken  with  care  and  forethought.  The  resources 
of  the  country  furnished  sinews  of  war.  Twelve  brigan- 
tines were  put  under  construction  by  the  Spanish  ship- 
builder who  was  among  the  forces,  timber  and  pitch 


THE  FALL  OF  THE  LAKE  CITY  89 


being  obtained  from  the  mountains  near  at  hand,  and 
the  ironwork  and  rigging  of  the  destroyed  navy  of  Vera 
Cruz  used  for  their  outfitting.  This  astonishing  piece 
of  work  was  performed  by  the  Tlascalans,  and  the  ships, 
carried  from  Tlascala  to  the  shore  of  Texcoco,  were 
floated  thereon  by  means  of  a canal  dug  by  these  mag- 
nificent allies  of  the  Spanish  Crown.  The  building  of 
ships  in  a forest  and  carrying  them  in  pieces  for  sixty 
miles  over  mountains  and  plains  to  the  water,  is  a feat 
which  may  well  command  our  admiration  even  to-day  ! 

The  subjugation  of  the  Aztec  city  proved  to  be  a pro- 
tracted and  bloody  task.  The  only  method  by  which 
it  could  be  compassed  was  that  of  laying  waste  the 
surrounding  places  on  the  lake  and  the  holding  of  the 
environs  of  the  city  in  a state  of  siege.  Cortes  estab- 
lished his  centre  of  operations  in  the  city  of  Texcoco, 
capital  of  the  nation  of  the  same  name,  on  the  eastern 
extremity  of  the  lake,  and  the  young  Prince  Ixtlilxochitl, 
whom  he  installed  upon  the  throne  of  that  kingdom,  was 
his  powerful  ally.  Indeed,  it  was  only  the  disaffections 
of  the  outlying  peoples,  who  generally  abhorred  the 
Aztec  hegemony,  that  enabled  the  Spaniards  to  carry 
on  their  operations,  or,  indeed,  to  set  foot  in  the 
country  at  all. 

A series  of  severe  struggles  began  then,  both  by  land 
and  water — burning,  slaughter,  and  the  destruction  of 
the  lake  towns.  The  Aztecs,  with  their  great  number, 
raining  darts  and  stones  upon  the  invaders  at  every 
engagement,  attacked  them  with  unparalleled  ferocity 
both  by  forces  on  shore  and  their  canoes  on  the  lake. 
The  Spaniards  took  heavy  toll  of  the  enemy  at  every 
turn,  assisted  by  their  allies  the  Tlascalans,  as  savage 
and  implacable  as  the  Aztecs,  whom  they  attacked  with 
a singular  and  persistent  spirit  of  hatred,  the  result  of 
long  years  of  oppression  by  the  dominant  power  of 
Anahuac.  Cortes,  on  every  occasion  when  it  seemed 
that  the  last  chance  of  success  might  attend  it,  offered 
terms  to  the  Aztec  capital,  by  no  means  dishonourable, 
assuring  them  their  liberty  and  self-government  in  return 


90 


MEXICO 


for  allegiance  to  the  Crown  of  Spain  and  the  renouncing 
of  their  abominable  system  of  sacrificial  religion.  These 
advances  were  invariably  met  by  the  most  implacable 
negatives.  The  Aztecs,  far  from  offering  to  yield,  swore 
they  would  sacrifice,  when  the  day  was  theirs,  every 
Spaniard  and  Tlascalan  on  the  bloody  altars  of  their 
gods  ; and  as  for  entering  into  any  treaty,  the  last  man, 
woman,  and  child  would  resist  the  hated  invaders  until 
the  last  drop  of  blood  was  shed  and  the  last  stone  of 
their  city  thrown  down.  This  vaunt,  as  regards  the 
latter  part,  was  almost  literally  carried  out,  and  to  some 
extent  as  regards  the  former. 

During  the  earlier  part  of  the  siege  a welcome  addition 
was  made  to  the  Spanish  forces.  Three  vessels  from 
Hispaniola  arrived  at  Vera  Cruz,  and  the  two  hundred  men, 
artillery,  gunpowder,  and  quantity  of  horses  they  brought 
placed  the  Spaniards  again  in  possession  of  superior 
arms.  Previous  to  this  the  brigantines  had  arrived, 
transported  by  the  Tlascalans,  eight  thousand  bearers 
loaded  with  timbers  and  appliances,  “ a marvellous  sight 
to  see,”  wrote  Cortes  to  the  king.  “ I assure  your  Majesty 
that  the  train  of  bearers  was  six  miles  long.”  It  is  related 
by  a subsequent  historian,  in  1626,  that  tallow  being 
scarce  for  the  shipwrights’  purposes,  it  was  obtained  from 
the  dead  bodies  of  Indians  who  had  fallen  in  the  fights ; 
presumably  by  boiling  them  down.1 

Plans  were  then  laid  for  an  attack  upon  the  island- 
city.  But  before  this  it  was  necessary  to  subjugate  some 
troublesome  Indians  to  the  west,  and  the  expedition  to 
Cuernavaca  was  successfully  carried  out.  A remarkable 
incident  of  this  was  the  surprise  attack  upon  the  enemy 
in  an  impregnable  position,  by  the  crossing  of  a 
profound  chasm  by  means  of  two  overhanging  trees, 
which  were  utilised  as  a natural  bridge  by  some  Tlascalans 
and  the  Spaniards,  who  passed  the  dangerous  spot  by 

1 This  obtaining  of  sebo  humano,  or  “ human  tallow,”  by  the  Spaniards 
seems  to  have  been  practised  in  Peru  also,  according  to  stories  told  me 
by  the  natives  of  the  Andes,  and  recorded  in  my  book,  “ The  Andes  and  the 
Amazon.” 


THE  FALL  OF  THE  LAKE  CITY  91 


this  method.  Return  was  then  made  to  Xochimilco  on 
the  fresh-water  lake  of  that  name,  adjoining  at  that  time 
that  of  Texcoco  on  the  south.  The  name  of  this  place 
in  the  Aztec  tongue  signifies  “ The  Field  of  Flowers,”  for 
there  were  numbers  of  the  singular  chinampas,  or 
floating-gardens,  which  were  a feature  of  the  aquatic 
life  of  the  Mexicans,  existing  upon  this  lake. 

The  siege  operations  were  conducted  vigorously  both 
by  land  and  water.  Again  before  the  eyes  of  the  Spaniards 
stretched  that  fatal  causeway — path  of  death  amid  the 
salt  waters  of  Texcoco  for  so  many  of  their  brave 
comrades  upon  the  Noche  Trisie  of  their  terrible  flight  from 
Tenochtitlan.  And  there  loomed  once  more  that  dreaded 
teocalli,  whence  the  war-drum’s  mournful  notes  were  heard. 
Guarded  now  by  the  capable  and  persistent  Guatemoc, 
the  city  refused  an  offer  of  treaty,  and  invited  the  destruc- 
tion which  was  to  fall  upon  it.  From  the  azoteas,  or 
roofs  of  their  buildings  and  temples,  the  undaunted 
Mexicans  beheld  the  white-winged  brigantines,  armed 
with  those  belching  engines  of  thunder  and  death  whose 
sting  they  well  knew  : and  saw  the  ruthless  hand  of 
devastation  laying  waste  their  fair  town  of  the  lake  shore, 
and  cutting  off  their  means  of  life. 

But  the  Spaniards  had  yet  to  learn  to  their  cost  the 
lengths  of  Aztec  tenacity  and  ferocity.  It  will  be  recol- 
lected that  the  city  was  connected  to  the  lake  shores  by 
means  of  four  causeways,  built  above  the  surface  of  the 
water  ; engineering  structures  of  stone  and  mortar  and 
earth,  which  had  from  the  first  aroused  the  admiration 
of  the  Spaniards.  These  causeways,  whilst  they  rendered 
the  city  almost  impregnable  from  attack,  were  a source 
of  weakness  in  the  easy  cutting-off  of  food  supplies, 
which  they  afforded  to  the  enemy.  A simultaneous 
assault  on  all  these  approaches  was  organised  by 
the  Spaniards,  under  Sandoval,  Alvarado,  and  Cortes 
himself,  respectively,  whilst  the  brigantines,  with  their 
raking  artillery,  were  to  support  the  attack  by  water, 
aided  by  the  canoes  of  the  Tlascalan  and  Texcocan 
allies.  A series  of  attacks  was  made  by  this  method, 


92 


MEXICO 


and  at  last  the  various  bodies  of  Spaniards  advanced 
along  the  causeways  and  gained  the  city  walls.  But 
frightful  disaster  befel  them.  The  comparative  ease  with 
which  they  entered  the  city  aroused  Cortes’s  suspicions  ; 
and  at  that  moment,  from  the  summit  of  the  great  teocalli, 
rang  out  a fearful  note — the  horn  of  Guatemoc,  calling 
for  vengeance  and  a concerted  attack.  The  notes  of 
the  horn  struck  some  ominous  sense  of  chill  in  the 
Spaniards'  breasts,  and  the  soldier-penman,  Bernal  Diaz, 
who  was  fighting  valiantly  there,  says  that  the  noise 
echoed  and  re-echoed,  and  rang  in  his  ears  for  days 
afterwards.  The  Spaniards  on  this,  as  on  other  occasions, 
had  foolishly  neglected  to  secure  the  breaches  in  the 
causeways  as  they  passed,  or  at  least  the  rash  Alvarado 
had  not  done  so  with  his  command,  his  earlier  lesson 
unheeded  ; and  when  the  Christians  were  hurled  back- 
wards— for  their  easy  entrance  into  the  great  square  of 
the  city  had  been  in  the  nature  of  a decoy — disaster 
befel  them,  which  at  one  moment  seemed  as  if  it  would 
be  a repetition  of  that  of  the  Noche  Triste.  “ The  moment 
I reached  that  fearful  bridge,"  Cortes  wrote  in  his 
despatches,  “ I saw  the  Spaniards  returning  in  full  flight.” 
Remaining  to  hold  the  breach,  if  possible,  and  cover  the 
retreat,  the  chivalrous  Cortes,  almost  lost  his  life  from  a 
furious  attack  by  the  barbarians  in  their  canoes,  and  was 
only  saved  by  the  devotion  of  his  own  men  and  Indian 
allies,  who  gave  their  lives  in  his  rescue.  Word,  never- 
theless, had  gone  forth  among  the  men  that  Cortes  had 
fallen  ; and  the  savages,  throwing  before  the  faces  of 
Alvarado  and  Sandoval  the  bloody  heads  of  decapitated 
Spaniards,  cried  tauntingly  the  name  “ Malintzin,"  which 
was  that  by  which  Cortes  was  known  among  the  Mexicans. 
Men  and  horses  rolled  into  the  lake  ; dead  bodies  filled 
the  breaches  ; the  Christians  and  their  allies  were  beaten 
back,  and  “ as  we  were  all  wounded  it  was  only  the  help 
of  God  which  saved  us  from  destruction,"  wrote  Bernal 
Diaz.  Indeed,  both  Cortes  and  the  Spaniards  only 
escaped,  on  these  and  other  occasions,  from  the  Aztecs’ 
desire  to  take  them  alive  for  sacrifice. 


THE  FALL  OF  THE  LAKE  CITY  93 


Once  more,  after  disastrous  retreats  and  heavy  loss,  the 
bleeding  and  discouraged  Spaniards  lay  in  their  camp, 
as  evening  fell.  Of  dead,  wounded,  and  captured  the 
Spaniards  missed  more  than  a hundred  and  twenty  of 
their  comrades,  and  the  Tlascalans  a thousand,  whilst 
valuable  artillery,  guns,  and  horses  were  lost.  But  listen  ! 
what  is  that  mournful,  penetrating  sound  which  smites 
the  Christians’  ears  ? It  is  the  war-god’s  drum,  and 
even  from  where  the  Spaniards  stand  there  is  visible 
a procession  ascending  the  steps  of  the  teocalli,  and,  to 
their  horror,  the  forms  of  their  lost  comrades  are  seen 
within  it : whose  hearts  are  doomed  to  be  torn  out  living 
from  their  breasts  to  smoke  before  the  shrine  of  Huit- 
zilopochtli,  the  war-devil  of  their  enemies.  From  that 
high  and  fearful  place  their  comrades’  eyes  must  be  gazing 
with  despairing  look  towards  the  impotent  Spanish  camp, 
glazing  soon  in  death  as  the  obsidian  knives  of  the 
priests  performed  their  fiendish  work.  The  disastrous 
situation  of  the  Spaniards  was  made  worse  by  the 
desertion,  at  this  juncture,  of  the  Tlascalan  and  other 
allies.  Awed  by  a prophecy  sent  out  confidently  by  the 
Aztec  priests,  that  both  Christians  and  allies  should  be 
delivered  into  their  hands  before  eight  days  had  passed 
(prophecy  or  doom,  which  the  priests  said,  was  from  the 
mouth  of  the  war-god,  appeased  by  the  late  victory),  the 
superstitious  Indians  of  Cortes’s  forces  sneaked  off  in 
the  night. 

Continued  reverses,  in  the  face  of  long-continued 
action  and  desire  for  the  attaining  a given  end,  forges 
in  the  finer  calibre  of  mind  a spirit  of  unremitting 
purpose.  Blow  after  blow,  which  would  turn  away  the 
ordinary  individual  from  his  endeavour,  serves  to  steel 
the  real  hero  to  a dispassionate  and  persistent  patience, 
and  the  purpose  from  its  very  intensity  becomes  almost 
a sacred  cause,  and  seems  to  obtain  from  the  unseen 
powers  of  circumstance  success  at  last.  So  with  Cortes 
and  others  of  the  Spaniards.  The  period  prescribed  by 
the  somewhat  rash  prophecy  of  the  Aztec  priests  and  their 
infernal  oracle  having  passed  without  anything  remark- 


94 


MEXICO 


able  having  taken  place,  the  Tlascalan  and  Texcocan 
allies,  upbraided  and  warned  by  the  Spaniards'  messengers, 
now  sneaked  back  to  resume  the  attack  against  the  city. 
The  Aztecs  had  sought  to  cause  disaffection  in  outlying 
places  by  sending  round  the  bloody  heads  of  decapitated 
Spaniards  and  horses,  but  with  little  effect.  Cortes  then 
prepared  for  a final  effort.  The  plan  adopted  was  to 
be  slower  but  surer  than  the  former  one  of  simple 
slaughter.  It  was  determined  to  raze  the  city  to  the 
ground  ; to  destroy  the  buildings  step  by  step,  fill  up  the 
canals,  and  so  lay  waste  the  whole  area  from  the  outside, 
so  that  unobstructed  advance  might  be  maintained. 

The  execution  of  this  plan  was  begun.  The  city  ends 
of  the  causeways  were  captured  and  held  ; street  after 
street  was  demolished,  and  canal  after  canal  filled  up 
amid  scenes  of  incessant  fighting  and  slaughter.  Day 
after  day  the  Spaniards  returned  to  their  work  ; day  after 
day  with  admirable  tenacity  the  inhabitants  of  Tenoch- 
titlan  disputed  the  ground  inch  by  inch,  watered  with 
the  blood  of  themselves,  their  women  and  their  children. 
Their  supplies  cut  off,  famine  and  pestilence  wrought 
more  terrible  havoc  among  them — crowded  as  they 
gradually  became  into  one  quarter  of  the  city — than  the 
arms  of  the  Spaniards  and  the  Tlascalans.  At  the 
termination  of  each  day’s  work  the  Spanish  prepared  an 
ambuscade  for  the  enemy,  drawing  them  on  by  seeming 
to  retire,  and  massacring  them  with  the  artillery  and 
gun-fire  and  lances,  to  say  nothing  of  the  weapons  of 
their  savage  allies.  On  one  of  these  occasions  “ the  enemy 
rushed  out  yelling  as  if  they  had  gained  the  greatest 
victory  in  the  world,”  Cortes  wrote  in  his  despatches,  and 
“ more  than  five  hundred,  all  of  the  bravest  and  principal 
men,  were  killed  in  this  ambush.”  He  added,  and  it  was  a 
common  occurrence,  “our  allies  ” — the  Indians — “ supped 
well  that  night,  cutting  up  and  eating  their  captives  ! ” 
During  the  days  of  this  terrible  siege  the  famous  catapult 
was  made,  an  extraordinary  engine  to  discharge  great 
stones  upon  the  enemy.  This  was  to  enable  the 
Spaniards  to  husband  their  powder,  which  was  getting  low, 


THE  FALL  OF  THE  LAKE  CITY  95 


and  the  Aztecs  watched  the  construction  of  this  machine 
with  certain  fear.  It  was  completed  and  set  to  work,  but 
the  builder,  a Spanish  soldier  of  inventive  faculty,  nearly 
played  the  part  of  the  engineer  hoist  with  his  own  petard, 
for  the  great  stone  fired  rose,  it  is  true,  but  went  straight 
up  and  descended  again  upon  the  machine,  which  was 
ever  afterwards  the  laughing-stock  of  the  army. 

Further  severe  losses  were  now  inflicted  upon  the 
beleaguered  inhabitants,  as  more  ammunition  had  been 
obtained.  Peace  had  again  been  offered  by  the  Spaniards, 
and  again  refused  by  the  Aztecs.  An  Aztec  chief  of  high 
rank  had  been  captured,  and  then  returned  to  Guatemoc 
as  a peace  envoy.  The  Mexicans'  reply  was  to  execute 
and  sacrifice  the  unfortunate  emissary,  and  then  collect- 
ing their  forces  they  poured  out  upon  the  causeways  like 
a furious  tide,  which  seemed  as  if  it  would  sweep  all 
before  it.  But  the  Spaniards  were  prepared.  The  narrow 
causeways  were  commanded  by  the  artillery,  which 
poured  such  a deadly  hail  upon  the  enemy’s  numbers 
that  they  returned  fleeing  to  the  city. 

And  soon  the  end  approaches.  The  division  led  by 
Cortes  made  a fierce  assault  ; and  whilst  the  battle  raged 
the  Spaniards  observed  that  the  summit  of  one  of  the  teo- 
callis  was  in  flames.  It  was  the  work  of  Alvarado’s  men, 
who  had  penetrated  already  to  the  plaza.  Forces  were 
joined,  and  the  inhabitants  of  the  city,  driven  into  one 
quarter  thereof,  still  made  their  stubborn  and — now — 
suicidal  stand.  For  the  streets  were  piled  up  with  corpses, 
the  Aztecs  refraining  from  throwing  the  bodies  of  their  slain 
into  the  lake,  or  outside  the  city,  in  order  not  to  show 
their  weakness.  Pestilence  and  famine  had  made  terrible 
inroads  upon  the  population.  Miserable  wretches,  men, 
women,  and  children,  were  encountered  wandering  about 
careless  of  the  enemy,  only  bent  upon  finding  some  roots, 
bark,  or  offal  which  might  appease  the  hunger  at  their 
vitals.  The  salt  waters  of  the  lake,  which  they  had  been 
obliged  to  drink,  for  the  Spaniards  had  cut  the  aqueduct 
which  brought  the  fresh  water  from  Chapultepec,  had 
caused  many  to  sicken  and  die.  Mothers  had  devoured 


96 


MEXICO 


their  dead  children  ; the  bodies  of  the  slain  had  been 
eaten,  and  the  bark  gnawed  from  the  trunks  of  trees.  In 
their  dire  extremity  some  of  the  chiefs  of  the  beleaguered 
city  called  Cortes  to  the  barricade.  He  went,  trusting 
that  capitulation  was  at  hand,  for,  as  both  he  and  his 
historians  record,  the  slaughter  was  far  from  their  choosing. 
“ Do  but  finish  your  work  quickly,”  was  the  burden  of 
their  parley.  “ Let  us  go  and  rest  in  the  heaven  of  our 
war-god  ; we  are  weary  of  life  and  suffering.  How  is  it 
that  you,  a son  of  the  Sun,  tarry  so  long  in  finishing, 
when  the  Sun  himself  makes  circuit  of  the  earth  in  a day, 
and  so  accomplishes  his  work  speedily  ? ” 

This  remarkable  appeal  struck  renewed  pity  to  the 
heart  of  Cortes,  and  once  more  he  begged  them  to 
surrender  and  avoid  further  suffering,  and  the  Spaniards 
drew  off  their  forces  for  a space.  But  the  inexorable 
Guatemoc,  although  he  sent  an  embassy  to  say  he  would 
hold  parley,  and  the  Spaniards  waited  for  him,  did  not 
fulfil  the  promise  at  the  last  moment.  Incensed  at  this 
behaviour,  the  Spaniards  and  the  Tlascalans  renewed  the 
attack  with  overpowering  energy  on  the  one  part  and 
barbaric  savagery  on  the  other.  Contrary  to  the  orders 
of  the  Spaniards,  their  savage  allies  gave  no  quarter,  but 
murdered  men,  women,  and  children  in  fiendish  exul- 
tation. The  stench  of  the  dead  in  the  beleaguered  city 
was  overpowering  ; the  soil  was  soaked  with  blood  ; the 
gutters  ran  as  in  a rain-storm,  say  the  chroniclers,  and, 
wrote  Cortes  to  the  King  of  Spain  : “ Such  slaughter  was 
done  that  day  on  land  and  water  that  killed  and  prisoners 
numbered  forty  thousand  ; and  such  were  the  shrieks  and 
weeping  of  women  and  children  that  there  were  none  of 
us  whose  hearts  did  not  break.”  He  adds  that  it  was  im- 
possible to  contain  the  savage  killing  and  torturing  by 
their  allies  the  Tlascalans,  who  practised  such  cruelty  as 
had  never  been  seen,  and  “ out  of  all  order  of  nature.” 

At  nightfall  the  attacking  forces  drew  off,  leaving  the 
remainder  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  stricken  city  to 
consider  their  position.  It  is  stated  that  the  Tlascalans 
made  a great  banquet  of  the  flesh  of  the  fallen  Aztecs, 


THE  FALL  OF  THE  LAKE  CITY  97 


and  that  on  this  and  other  occasions  they  fished  up  the 
bloated  bodies  of  their  enemies  from  the  lake  and 
devoured  them  ! At  sunrise  on  the  following  day  Cortes 
and  a few  followers  entered  the  city,  hoping  to  have  a 
supplication  for  terms  from  Guatemoc.  The  army  was 
stationed  outside  the  walls,  ready,  in  the  event  of  a refusal 
— the  signal  of  which  should  be  a musket-shot — to  pour 
in  and  strike  the  final  blow.  A parley  was  entered  into  as 
before,  which  lasted  several  hours.  “ Do  you  surrender  ?” 
Cortes  demanded.  The  final  reply  of  Guatemoc  was, 
“ I will  not  come  : I prefer  to  die  where  I am  : do  your 
worst.” 

A musket-shot  rang  out  upon  the  air  ; the  Spaniards  and 
their  allies  fell  on  to  merciless  slaughter : cannons,  muskets, 
arrows,  slings,  lances — all  told  their  tale  upon  the  huddled 
mass  of  panic-stricken  people,  who,  after  presenting  a 
feeble  and  momentary  front,  poured  forth  upon  the  fatal 
causeways  to  escape.  Drowned  and  suffocated  in  the 
waters  of  the  lake,  mowed  down  by  the  fire  from  the 
brigantines,  and  butchered  by  the  brutal  Tlascalans, 
women,  children,  and  men  struggled  and  shrieked  among 
that  frightful  carnage  ; upon  which  it  were  almost  im- 
pious to  dwell  further.  Guatemoc,  with  his  wife  and 
children,  strove  to  escape,  and  the  canoe  containing  them 
was  already  out  upon  the  lake,  when  a brigantine  ran  it 
down  and  captured  him.  All  resistance  was  at  an  end. 
No  sign  of  life  or  authority  remained  among  the  ruined 
walls ; the  fair  city  by  the  lake  was  broken  and  tenantless, 
its  idols  fallen,  and  its  people  fled.  The  Homeric  struggle 
was  over  ; the  conquest  of  Mexico  was  accomplished. 


8 


CHAPTER  VI 

MEXICO  AND  THE  VICEROYS 


General  considerations — Character  of  Viceroy  rule — Spanish  civilisation — 
Administration  of  Cortes  — Torture  of  Guatemoc — Conquests  of 
Guatemala  and  Honduras — Murder  of  Guatemoc — Fall  of  Cortes — 
First  viceroy  Mendoza — His  good  administration — Misrule  of  the 
Audiencias  — Slavery  and  abuse  of  the  Indians  — The  Philippine 
islands  — Progress  under  the  Viceroys  — Plans  for  draining  the 
Valley  of  Mexico — British  buccaneers — Priestly  excesses — Raid  of 
Agramonte  — Exploration  of  California — Spain  and  England  at 
war — Improvements  and  progress  in  the  eighteenth  century — 
Waning  of  Spanish  power — Decrepitude  of  Spain — Summary  of 
Spanish  rule — Spanish  gifts  to  Mexico — The  rising  of  Hidalgo — 
Spanish  oppression  of  the  colonists — Oppression  by  the  colonists  of 
the  Indians — Republicanism  and  liberty — Operations  and  death  of 
Hidalgo — The  revolution  of  Morelos — Mier — The  dawn  of  Inde- 
pendence— The  birth  of  Spanish-American  nations. 


The  history  of  Mexico,  like  its  topography,  shows  a series 
of  intense  and  varied  pictures.  Indeed,  it  ever  occurs  to 
the  student  of  the  Spanish-American  past,  and  observer 
of  Spanish-American  hills  and  valleys,  that  the  diverse 
physical  changes  seem  to  have  had  some  analogy  with 
or  to  have  exercised  some  influence  upon  the  acts  of 
mankind  there.  Whether  in  Mexico,  Peru,  or  other 
parts  of  North,  Central,  and  South  America,  formed  by 
the  rugged  ranges  of  the  Andes,  the  accompaniments  of 
prehistoric  civilisation,  daring  conquest,  bloody  and 
picturesque  revolution,  and  social  turmoil  are  found. 
Amid  these  great  mountain  peaks  and  profound  valleys 
strange  semi-civilised  barbarians  raised  their  temples, 
and  European  men,  arriving  thither  in  armed  bands,  have 

98 


MEXICO  AND  THE  VICEROYS  99 


torn  both  themselves  and  their  predecessors  to  pieces,  as 
if  some  dictate  of  Nature  had  said,  “ Fight ; for  here  is  no 
peace.  ” 

Yet  what  was  really  destined  to  take  place  in  Mexico 
was  the  evolution  of  a distinct  civilisation.  Three 
hundred  years  of  the  implanting  of  the  seed  of  Spanish 
culture  and  ideals,  and  fifty  years  of  drastic  revolutionary 
tilling  of  the  social  soil,  wrought  a nation  at  length. 

Transplanted  from  the  Old  World,  the  methods  and 
character  of  Spanish  life,  with  all  its  virtues  and  defects, 
rapidly  took  root  in  Mexico.  The  long  rule  of  the 
Viceroys  is  steeped  in  an  atmosphere  often  brilliant  and 
attractive,  often  dark  and  sinister,  always  romantic  and 
impressive.  The  grandees  of  Spain  came  out  to  rule  this 
new  country,  and  gave  it  of  their  best,  nor  disdained  to 
spend  their  years  therein,  and  a stream  of  capable  legis- 
lators and  erudite  professors  and  devout  ecclesiastics 
hurried  to  the  new  field  which  lay  open  to  their  services 
and  powers.  The  patriotism  and  fervency  of  their  work, 
whatever  defects  they  showed  from  time  to  time,  cannot 
fail  to  arouse  the  applause  of  the  student  of  those  times. 
The  colonial  regime  gave  solid  and  enduring  character 
to  the  Mexican  people.  It  gave  them  traditions,  history, 
refinement,  which  are  a priceless  heritage  for  them,  and 
it  builded  beautiful  cities  and  raised  up  valuable  insti- 
tutions which  are  the  substratum  of  their  civilisation. 
The  wonderful  vitality  and  extent  of  Spanish  influence 
and  character  which  flowed  from  these  centres — Mexico, 
Peru,  and  others — over  thousands  of  miles  of  rugged 
Cordillera  and  through  impassable  forests,  was,  in  some 
respects,  the  most  notable  condition  within  the  shores  of 
all  the  New  World.  The  stamp  of  the  great  civilisation 
which  Spain,  herself  the  result  of  a human  blend  of 
undying  character,  implanted  within  these  continents 
is  great  and  imperishable,  and  holds  something  for  the 
world  at  large  which  is,  as  yet,  scarcely  suspected. 

But,  to  return  to  history.  In  1522  Cortes  was 
appointed  Governor  and  Captain-General  of  the  great 
territory  which  Spain  acquired  as  a result  of  the  Conquest, 


100 


MEXICO 


and  to  which  the  name  of  “ New  Spain  ” was  given — a 
designation,  however,  which  was  never  able  to  usurp  its 
ancient  and  natural  one  of  “ Mexico.”  The  charges 
which  had  been  brought  against  Cortes  by  his  jealous 
enemies  had  been  inquired  into  by  an  impartial  group 
of  statesmen  appointed  by  the  young  King  of  Spain, 
Charles  V.,  and  set  aside  ; and  thus  began  the  rule  of 
Spain  in  Mexico.  The  Conquistador  thus  reached  the 
summit  of  fame  and  power — the  reward  of  his  indomit- 
able spirit  of  persistence  in  the  path  and  project  which 
his  imagination  had  fired. 

The  regime  of  Cortes  was  not  without  benefit  to  the 
colony.  A fine  city  arose  upon  the  ruins  of  Tenochtitlan. 
Settlement  of  the  country  was  carried  on  ; valuable  pro- 
ducts of  the  Old  World — among  them  the  sugar-cane  and 
orange  and  grape-vines — were  introduced  and  cultivated; 
exploration  of  the  country  was  pushed  on  a consider- 
able scale,  resulting  in  the  discovery  of  the  Pacific  coast 
of  Mexico.  The  conquest  of  Guatemala  was  carried  out 
by  Pedro  de  Alvarado,  sent  thither  by  Cortes,  and  that  of 
Honduras  by  Olid.  Cortes  personally  carried  an  expedi- 
tion to  Honduras,  but  disturbances  in  Mexico  obliged 
him  to  return. 

Guatemoc,  the  brave  young  Aztec  defender  of  Tenoch- 
titlan, fared  ill  at  the  hands  of  the  Spaniards.  To  their 
shame  it  is  that,  after  the  fall  of  the  city,  they  tortured 
him — by  permission  of  Cortes — in  order  to  extract  infor- 
mation as  to  the  whereabouts  of  the  Aztec  treasure  ; for 
the  invaders  had  obtained  disappointingly  little  gold.  In 
company  with  one  of  his  chiefs  the  Spaniards  roasted  the 
feet  of  Guatemoc  before  a fire  : “ Think  you  that  I am 
upon  some  bed  of  delight  ? " was  the  reply  of  the  stoic 
Aztec  to  his  groaning  companion  in  torture,  who  asked 
if  he  did  not  suffer.  Guatemoc  remained  crippled  for 
life  by  this  barbarous  act,  but  he  accompanied  Cortes  to 
Honduras,  and  upon  this  expedition  it  was  that  the 
Spaniards  executed — or  murdered — him.  He  was 
accused  of  treachery  in  having  endeavoured  to  incite  a 
rebellion  against  the  Spaniards,  and  they  hanged  him 


MEXICO  AND  THE  VICEROYS  101 


head  downwards  from  a tree.  “ Ah  ! Malintzin,”  1 the 
unfortunate  Aztec  said  to  Cortes  after  his  mock  trial, 
“ vain  I ever  knew  it  to  trust  in  your  promises  ! " 

And  now  the  time  arrives  when  the  star  of  the  Con- 
quistador is  to  wane  and  set.  The  execution  of 
Guatemoc  had  brought  about  a reprimand  from  Spain  ; 
for  it  is  to  be  recollected  that  the  Spanish  sovereigns 
never  sought  the  actual  destruction  of  the  American 
princes,  and  Pizarro,  also,  was  reprimanded  after  his 
murder  of  Atahualpa,  in  Peru.  Cortes,  upon  his  return 
to  Mexico  from  the  Honduras  expedition,  found  that 
Spain  was  not  pleased  with  his  administration.  Enemies 
had  been  at  work,  and  gratitude  for  his  great  services 
was  easily  set  aside  in  the  fickle  favour  of  the  monarch. 
A special  commissioner,  in  the  person  of  the  licentiate 
Ponce  de  Leon,  was  awaiting  him,  appointed  by 
Carlos  V.  to  impeach  him,  as  a result  of  grave  charges 
of  maladministration — true  or  untrue — which  had  been 
brought  against  him  in  Spain.  In  this  connection  it  is 
to  be  recollected  that  Cortes,  faithful  to  his  country,  had 
twice  refused  to  be  made  King  of  Mexico  by  his  own 
followers.  Cortes,  finding  his  enemies  too  strong,  went 
to  Spain  to  lay  his  case  before  the  Emperor  personally, 
but  was  denied  the  civil  governorship  of  Mexico, 
although  military  control  was  given  him,  and  the  title 
of  Marques  del  Valle.  But  although  he  returned  to 
Mexico,  he  was  no  longer  in  the  dominant  position  of 
former  years.  Cortes  returned  to  Spain  in  1540  from 
Mexico,  once  more  to  lay  the  plaint  of  his  unjust  treat- 
ment before  Carlos  V.,  a result  of  his  disputes  with  the 
first  viceroy,  Mendoza.  He  was  treated  with  indifference 
and  coldness  ; his  life  terminated  in  disappointment  and 
regrets,  and  he  died  in  Spain  in  December,  1547.  So  pass 
the  actors  in  the  drama  of  the  Conquest.  As  to  Guatemoc, 
his  memory  is  perpetuated  in  the  handsome  statue  in  the 
paseo  de  Colon  of  modern  Mexico,  whilst — strange  senti- 
ment of  the  race  which  Cortes  founded — no  monument 
to  the  bold  Conquistador  exists  throughout  the  land. 

1 The  Aztec  name  for  Cortes. 


10  2 


MEXICO 


From  the  time  of  the  fall  of  the  fortunes  of  Cortes  in 
1535  to  the  first  cry  for  independence  by  Hidalgo  in 
1810,  New  Spain  was  administered  by  viceroys  and 
Audiencias — the  latter  being  a species  of  administrative 
councils  consisting  of  a president  and  four  members, 
nominated  by  royal  decree.  The  first  viceroy,  Mendoza, 
and  many  of  the  subsequent  officials  of  this  rank 
governed  Mexico  for  a period,  and  were  transferred 
thence  to  the  viceregency  of  Peru,  which  latter  country 
had  been  brought  into  Spain’s  colonial  possessions  by  the 
conquest  under  Pizarro,  in  1532.  Indeed,  Pizarro  a short 
time  after  that  date  had  made  his  second  entry  into  Cuzco, 
the  Inca  capital  of  Peru,  wearing  an  ermine  robe  which 
Cortes  had  sent  him.  During  Mendoza’s  period,  print- 
ing was  first  introduced  into  Mexico — or,  indeed,  into  the 
New  World — the  Mint  and  the  University  were  founded, 
and  exploration  of  the  northern  part  of  the  country  was 
undertaken.  The  rule  of  the  first  viceroy,  Mendoza,  was 
good ; he  was  upright  and  capable,  and  his  methods 
were  in  marked  contrast  to  the  excesses  and  cruelties 
practised  by  the  first  Audiencia,  which  had  preceded  his 
and  the  second  Andiencia’s  regime.  Bishops  and 
priests  took  active  part  in  the  affairs  of  Mexico  from  the 
beginning,  and  the  first  Audiencia  had  been  involved  in 
grave  conflict  with  the  clergy.  One  of  the  main  features 
of  the  period  was  the  system  of  repartmientos  and 
encomiendas  under  which  the  Indians  were  portioned  out 
as  serfs  to  the  Spanish  colonists.  Exceeding  brutality 
marked  this  system  of  slavery  ; and  at  an  early  date  it 
became  necessary  to  abolish  the  practice  of  branding  the 
unfortunate  serfs  with  hot  irons,  like  cattle  ! Thus  began 
the  system  of  cruelty  and  abuse  of  the  natives  under 
Spanish  rule — not  from  Spain,  however,  but  by  the 
colonists — whose  counterpart  was  enacted  in  the  South 
American  countries  contemporaneously.  It  is  to  the 
credit  of  Churchmen  that  they  often  took  the  part  of  the 
Indians  ; and  a venerated  name  to  this  day  among  the 
natives  of  Michoacan  is  that  of  Quiroga,  the  first  Bishop 
of  that  province,  who  penetrated  there  to  endeavour  to 


MEXICO  AND  THE  VICEROYS  103 


counteract  the  effect  of  the  marked  abuses  of  Guzman, 
president  of  the  first  Audiencia,  who  in  1527  burned  to 
death  their  chief,  because  he  would  not,  or  could  not,  give 
up  his  gold.  Velasquez,  the  second  viceroy,  succeeding 
Mendoza,  also  had  grave  questions  with  the  Audiencia. 
He  also  was  an  upright  man,  and  his  death  was  hastened 
by  these  matters.  Indeed,  the  Audiencias  were  singularly 
unfortunate  in  their  proceedings,  and  their  rule  was 
almost  always  marked  by  a mistaken  policy  exaggerated 
by  acts  of  cruelty  and  oppression.  During  the  time  of 
Velasco  an  expedition  sent  by  him  sailed  from  Mexico 
westward,  and  took  possession  in  1564  of  the  Philip- 
pine Islands,  which  were  so  named  after  the  reigning  King 
of  Spain,  Philip  II. 

Viceroy  succeeded  viceroy  then  in  the  history  of 
Mexico,  and  tyranny  and  benevolence  followed  each 
other  alternately  in  the  governing  of  the  people.  Under 
the  cruel  Munoz,  a member  of  the  Audiencia,  the  son  of 
Cortes  was  tortured,  and  gaols  were  filled  and  blood  was 
freely  shed  on  political  and  other  charges.  In  1571 
another  sinister  event  took  place — the  establishing  of  the 
Inquisition.  A few  years  later  the  foundation  of  the 
Cathedral  of  Mexico  was  laid,  the  beautiful  structure 
which  to-day  dominates  the  capital.  A matter  which 
was  early  forced  upon  the  attention  of  the  viceroys  and 
city  councils  was  the  occurrence  of  flooding  of  the  city 
and  attendant  epidemics  and  disaster  ; for  the  peculiar 
hydrographic  conditions  of  the  Valley  of  Mexico  rendered 
it  liable  to  floods,  the  first  of  which  had  occurred  1553. 
In  1580  plans  were  formulated  for  drainage  by  means  of 
a canal  which  should  give  outlet  through  the  surrounding 
hills.  In  1603  this  project  was  again  brought  forward 
and  again  abandoned  ; and  in  1607  work  was  actually 
begun,  with  a force  of  nearly  half  a million  Indians,  upon 
the  great  cut  of  Nochistongo,  which  still  exists  and  lies 
open  to  the  view  of  the  traveller  upon  the  Mexican  railway 
to-day. 

Towards  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century  the  ports  of 
New  Spain,  especially  Vera  Cruz,  were  visited  by  those 


104 


MEXICO 


enterprising  and  unscrupulous  sea-rovers  of  Britain, 
Drake,  Cavendish,  Hawkins,  and  others,  who  took  toll 
of  coast  towns  and  plate-ships  throughout  the  regions 
which  Spain  claimed  as  her  own,  but  which  pretensions 
were  not  respected  by  others  of  the  maritime  nations  of 
Europe.  A memorable  period  was  this  in  the  history 
of  the  New  World,  as  of  the  Old,  for  this  flood-tide 
of  staunch  buccaneers  from  Britain  and  Holland  did 
but  swell  onward  and  culminate  in  the  defeat  of  the 
Invincible  Armada  off  the  Elizabethan  coast,  1588.  The 
student  of  the  history  of  Spanish  America  at  this  period 
will  not  spare  much  sympathy  for  Spain  and  Spanish 
misrule.  Under  Philip  II.  a constant  drain  of  treasure 
from  Mexico  and  Peru  for  the  needy  Mother  Country 
had  given  rise  to  serious  abuses  in  the  mines,  and  silver 
was  extracted  to  fabulous  values  and  sent  to  Spain 
under  the  system  of  forced  labour. 

In  1622  acute  questions  arose  between  the  Court  and 
ecclesiastical  authorities,  as  ever  inevitably  took  place  in 
Spain’s  colonial  dominions.  Bishops  excommunicated 
viceroys,  and  viceroys  fulminated  banishment  against 
bishops  : riotings  and  beheadings  followed,  and  royal 
interpositions  were  constantly  necessary  to  uphold  or 
condemn  the  action  of  one  or  the  other  side.  In  1629 
an  appalling  inundation  of  the  City  of  Mexico  took 
place,  following  a similar  occurrence  in  1622,  due  to  the 
discontinuance  of  the  drainage  works  which  had  earlier 
been  begun  ; and  it  is  stated  that  thirty  thousand  of  the 
poor  inhabitants  of  the  valley  perished  as  a result.  Two 
years  later  acute  dissatisfaction  began  to  arise  at  the 
great  acquisition  of  wealth  and  power  by  the  clergy,  and 
a memorial  sent  to  Philip  IV.  by  the  municipality  of 
Mexico  begged  that  no  more  religious  institutions  or 
communities  might  be  established,  asserting  that  more 
than  half  the  wealth  of  the  country  was  in  the  hands  of 
these,  and  that  there  were  more  than  six  thousand  priests 
— most  of  them  idle — in  the  country. 

From  the  middle  to  the  close  of  the  seventeenth 
century  the  social  life  of  the  people  developed  but 


GUANAJUATO  AS  SEEN  FROM  THE  HII.ES:  THE  HISTORIC  TREASURE- 


MEXICO  AND  THE  VICEROYS  105 


slowly.  The  main  events  were  the  conspiracy  of  the 
Irishman  Lampart  to  secure  independence  for  the 
country,  the  dedication  of  the  cathedral  of  Mexico, 
the  founding  of  the  town  of  Albuquerque  in  the  terri- 
tory of  New  Mexico — to-day  part  of  the  United  States, 
the  enactment  against  the  violation  of  private  corre- 
spondence, the  fortification  of  the  ports  on  the  Gulf 
coast  against  the  operations  of  sea-rovers — among  them 
the  famous  British  buccaneer  Morgan,  the  eruption  of 
Popocatepetl  (1665),  the  sacking  of  the  town  of  Campeche 
by  British  ships  (1680),  the  insurrection  and  murders 
by  the  Indians  of  Chihuahua  and  New  Mexico,  the 
piratical  exploit  of  Agramonte  and  his  band,  who  dis- 
embarked at  and  looted  the  port  of  Vera  Cruz,  imprison- 
ing the  greater  part  of  the  population  in  a church,  the 
exploration  of  California,  and  the  operations  against  the 
French  and  English  settlers  upon  the  Mexican  Gulf  coast. 
The  last  years  of  the  century  were  disturbed  by  serious 
rioting  and  tumult  in  the  capital,  due  to  scarcity  of  food 
and  the  inundation  of  the  city. 

The  first  years  of  1700  opened  with  some  alarm  for 
the  Spaniards  of  Mexico,  for  England  and  Spain  were  at 
war,  and  it  was  feared  that  British  naval  operations 
might  be  undertaken  against  the  country.  The  loss  of 
a plate-ship's  treasure,  due  to  the  war,  caused  heavier 
taxes  to  fall  upon  the  colonists,  for  continued  exactions 
marked  this  century,  from  Spain,  for  treasure  for  the 
prosecution  of  her  wars.  The  Gulf  coast  was  placed 
in  a position  of  defence  against  the  British,  who,  how- 
ever, after  the  capture  of  Habana,  in  1762,  concluded 
peace  with  Spain  in  the  following  year.  Previous  to  that 
the  English  Admiral  Anson  had  captured  a galleon  on  its 
way  from  Acapulco  to  Manilla,  with  two  and  a half  million 
dollars  on  board.  The  main  events  of  this  century,  in 
addition  to  the  foregoing,  were  the  explorations  of  the 
Jesuits  in  California  (1700),  the  severe  earthquake  of 
1711,  the  distress  among  the  common  people,  due  to 
famine  and  oppression,  which  the  Viceroy,  the  Duke  of 
Linares,  strove  to  remedy.  In  1734  the  first  creole 


106 


MEXICO 


Viceroy,  the  Marquis  of  Casa  Fuerte,  born  in  Lima, 
was  appointed,  and  during  his  regime  the  first  Mexican 
newspaper  was  published.  During  the  war  between 
England  and  Spain  the  Viceroy  Figueroa,  Marquis  of 
Gracia  Real,  was  almost  captured  by  the  British,  who 
gave  chase  to  the  ship  in  which  he  came  from  Spain. 
Further  events  were  the  singular  phenomenon  of  the 
forming  of  the  volcano  of  Jorullo  in  Michoacan  in  1759, 
the  celebration  of  peace  between  England  and  Spain  in 
1763,  the  suppression  of  the  Jesuits  and  their  expulsion 
from  the  country  in  1767,  under  the  Marquis  de  Croix  ; 
the  continued  exactions  of  the  Council  of  the  Indies  for 
treasure  from  the  colonists,  the  clearing  of  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  of  buccaneers  in  1785,  the  reorganisation  and 
improvement  of  the  city  of  Mexico  under  Padilla,  Count 
of  Revillagigedo  (1789-94)  ; the  encouragement  of 
agriculture,  mining,  manufacturing,  road-building,  ex- 
ploration, improvement  of  sanitary  conditions,  and 
amelioration  of  those  concerning  the  administration  of 
justice,  which  this  good  viceroy  carried  out.  But  at  the 
close  of  the  century,  under  his  effete  successor,  Branci- 
forte  (1799),  a conspiracy  was  inaugurated,  but  frustrated, 
for  the  massacre  of  Spaniards,  and  the  establishing  of 
the  independence  of  the  country. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  great  nineteenth  century, 
the  long  array  of  viceroys,  governors,  and  priests  nears 
its  close.  The  imperial  authority  of  the  Spanish 
sovereign,  unquestioned  since  Cortes  won  the  country 
for  it,  reached  its  natural  waning,  urged  on  and  influ- 
enced by  world-happenings  in  European  lands  reacting 
upon  these  remote  shores  of  New  Spain.  Not  only  was 
this  the  case  in  Mexico.  The  decrepitude  of  the  Mother 
Country,  the  old  age  and  infirmity  which  had  been 
creeping  upon  Castile  through  the  excesses  of  her  rulers, 
who  learnt  nothing  from  time  or  circumstance,  was  laid 
bare  to  the  people  of  America  throughout  the  vast 
regions  held  by  Spain.  Mexico,  Peru,  Chile,  Colombia, 
Argentina — for  the  voice  of  Bolivar  was  ringing  through 
the  Andes — all  in  the  first  and  second  decades  of  the 


MEXICO  AND  THE  VICEROYS  107 


progressive  nineteenth  century  were  bent  upon  one  stern 
task,  the  throwing  off  of  the  yoke  of  Spain  and  the 
establishing  of  native  administrations.  The  flower  of  the 
earth,  the  vast  and  rich  tropics  and  sub-tropics  of  North 
and  South  America,  from  California,  Texas,  and  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  Mexico,  Central  America,  down 
through  the  great  Andes  of  Peru  and  Chile  to  Cape  Horn, 
was  in  the  hands  of  Spain,  and  it  slipped  from  the  grasp 
of  a foolish  and  moribund  nation. 

But  before  entering  upon  these  events  let  us  take  a 
final  glance  and  draw  a summary  of  the  three  long 
centuries — 1521  to  1821 — of  this  great  array  of  Imperial 
Governors  and  their  rule.  Since  that  day  of  August  13, 
1521,  when  Cortes  unfurled  the  standard  of  Spain  over 
the  castle  of  Montezuma  : to  the  consummation  of 
Mexican  independence,  the  entry  of  Iturbide  into  the 
city  of  Mexico  on  September  27,  1821  : five  Governors, 
two  Audiencias,  or  Royal  Commissions,  and  sixty-two 
Viceroys  had  guided  the  destiny  of  colonial  Mexico. 
Many  of  the  names  of  these  authorities  stand  out  in 
lustre  as  good  and  humane,  tolerant  and  energetic  for 
the  advancement  of  the  colony  ; merciful  to  the  Indian 
population,  and  worthy  of  the  approbation  of  the  history 
of  their  time.  Others  were  rapacious  and  cruel,  using 
their  power  for  their  own  ends,  and  showing  that 
ruthless  cruelty  and  indifference  to  bloodshed  and  suffer- 
ing— holding  the  lives  of  natives  as  cheap  as  that  of 
animals — which  has  been  characteristic  of  Spaniards  of 
all  time.  Counts,  marquises,  Churchmen — all  have  passed 
upon  the  scroll  of  those  three  hundred  years  ; some  left 
indelible  marks  for  good,  some  for  evil  ; whilst  others, 
effete  and  useless,  are  buried  in  forgetfulness.  The 
Spanish  character,  architecture,  institutions,  and  class 
distinctions  were  now  indelibly  stamped  upon  the  people 
of  Mexico.  The  Aztec  regime  had  passed  for  ever  ; the 
Indian  race  was  outclassed  and  subordinate ; and  the 
mestizos , the  people  of  mixed  native  and  Hispanic  blood, 
were  rapidly  becoming  the  most  numerous  part  of  the 
civilised  population  of  the  country.  Whatever  of  good 


108 


MEXICO 


had  existed  in  the  Aztec  semi-civilisation — and  there 
was  much  of  use  in  their  land  laws  and  other 
social  measures — was  entirely  stamped  out,  and  the 
sentiment  and  practice  of  European  civilisation  estab- 
lished. It  is  to  be  recollected  that  Spain  adopted 
nothing,  whether  in  Mexico  or  in  Peru,  of  the  ancient 
civilisation.  Both  the  Aztecs  and  Incas  lived  under  a 
set  of  laws  which  in  some  cases  were  superior  to  those 
of  the  conquerors,  especially  those  relating  to  land- 
holding  and  the  payment  of  taxes  and  distribution  of 
wealth.  Under  these  primitive  civilisations  of  America 
poverty  or  starvation  was  impossible,  as  every  citizen 
was  provided  for.  The  Spaniards,  however,  would  have 
none  of  it,  and  the  land  and  the  Indians,  body  and  soul, 
were  the  property  of  their  taskmasters.  They  might 
starve  or  not,  as  circumstances  might  dictate,  after  the 
fashion  of  European  and  American  civilisation  even  of 
to-day,  which  denies  any  inherent  right  to  ownership 
and  enjoyment  of  the  land  and  its  resources  on  the  part 
of  its  citizens.  But  Spain  stamped  many  institutions 
in  Mexico  with  the  beauty  and  utility  of  her  own  civili- 
sation. She  endowed  it  with  traditions  and  culture  ; she 
gave  it  the  spirit  of  Western  ambition  which  bids  every 
citizen  assert  his  right.  The  Mexican  of  to-day  owes  all 
he  has — law,  literature,  art,  and  social  system,  and  refine- 
ment and  religion — to  Spain. 

But  let  us  now  take  our  stand  with  Hidalgo,  the 
warrior-priest  of  Mexico.  The  hand  of  Spain  is  still 
pressing  on  the  country.  The  year  1810  has  arrived 
and  the  father  of  Mexico's  independence  is  uttering  his 
famous  cry,  “ Viva  America  ! viva  religion  ! death  to  bad 
government  ! " After  the  native  place  of  Hidalgo  this 
message — for  such  it  rapidly  became — was  known  as 
el  grito  de  Dolores — “ the  call  of  Dolores."  The  time 
was  ripe  for  the  assertion  of  independence.  Spain  was 
invaded  by  Napoleon  ; the  King  had  abdicated.  Who 
was  the  authority  who  should  carry  on  the  govern- 
ment— or  misgovernment — of  the  colony  ? asked  the 
city  Council  of  Mexico  as  they  urged  the  Viceroy  to 


STATUE  OF  HIDALGO  AT  MONTERREY. 


MEXICO  AND  THE  VICEROYS  109 


retain  his  authority  against  all  comers.  Unfortunately, 
the  Spaniards,  residents  of  the  capital,  precipitated 
lawlessness  by  rising  and  seizing  the  persons  of  the 
Viceroy  Iturrigaray  and  high  ecclesiastics,  and  some 
political  murders  followed.  But  the  predisposing  causes 
for  the  assertion  of  independence  were  nearer  home. 
The  British  colonies,  away  to  the  north-east  on  the 
same  continent,  had  severed  the  link  which  bound 
them  to  the  Mother  Country.  The  embryo  of  the  great 
republic  of  the  United  States — poor  and  weak  then — 
was  established,  and  the  spirit  of  independence  was  in 
the  air.  Most  poignant  of  all,  however,  was  the  feeling 
caused  by  Spain’s  treatment  of  the  Mexicans.  Instead  of 
fomenting  the  industries  and  trade  of  her  colonies,  Spain 
established  amazing  monopolies  and  unjust  measures  of 
repression.  The  trade  which  had  grown  between  Mexico 
and  China,  and  the  great  galleons  which  came  and  went 
from  Acapulco — a more  important  seaport  then  than  now 
even — was  considered  detrimental  to  Spain’s  own  com- 
merce. It  was  prohibited  ! The  culture  of  grapes  in 
Mexico,  where  they  had  been  introduced  and  flourished 
exceedingly  well,  seemed  antagonistic  to  the  wine-making 
industry  of  Iberia ; Hidalgo’s  vineyard,  upon  which  he 
had  lavished  enterprise  and  care,  was  forthwith  destroyed 
by  the  Spanish  authorities  ! Thus  industry  and  commerce 
were  purposely  stunted  in  Mexico,  as  they  had  been  in 
Peru,  by  Imperial  policy,  and  this  went  hand  in  hand 
with  the  restriction  or  denial  of  any  political  rights,  and 
the  oppression  of  the  native  population  in  the  mines  and 
plantations.  “ Learn  to  be  silent  and  to  obey,  for  which 
you  were  born,  and  not  to  discuss  politics  or  have 
opinions,”  ran  the  proclamation  of  a viceroy  in  the  latter 
half  of  the  eighteenth  century,  addressed  to  the  Mexicans  ! 
Other  contributory  causes  to  the  revolution  were  the  senti- 
ments of  the  great  French  philosophers  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  which  had  sunk  into  the  Mexican  character. 

But  it  would  not  be  just  to  proclaim  that  life  under 
Spain’s  rule  was  hard  or  oppressive,  or  marked  by  con- 
tinued ferocity  and  bloodshed.  The  Mexicans  lived  in 


110 


MEXICO 


relative  comfort  and  even  luxury,  and  amassed  wealth. 
Enormous  fortunes  were  made  in  the  mines,  and  titles  of 
nobility  were  constantly  granted  from  Spain  to  fortunate 
mine-owners  who,  by  means  of  suddenly-acquired  wealth, 
were  enabled  to  render  services  to  the  Crown.  Nor  can 
the  abuses  of  the  natives  be  cast  at  Spain’s  door  alto- 
gether. The  colonists  of  Mexico,  like  those  of  Peru  or, 
indeed,  of  any  of  the  communities  of  the  New  World 
themselves,  were  the  greatest  oppressors  of  the  natives 
in  extortion,  confiscation,  forced  labour,  and  the  like,  and 
it  was  the  “ interference  ” of  the  Imperial  authorities, 
viceroy  or  Archbishop,  against  the  oppression  of  the 
encomiendas,  which,  even  in  early  days,  often  gave  rise 
to  discontent.  The  sovereigns  of  Spain  enacted  laws  for 
the  protection  of  the  natives,  in  many  cases,  and  strove  to 
better  their  position.  Indeed,  it  may  be  said  that,  to 
the  present  day,  the  regulation  of  affairs  between  colonists 
and  natives — whether  in  America,  Asia,  or  Africa — requires 
the  justice  of  an  imperial  home  Government,  however  far 
off  from  the  scene  of  its  “ interference.”  Independence 
in  America,  whether  in  the  United  States  or  in  the 
Spanish  States,  did  not  necessarily  spell  liberty,  toleration, 
and  brotherhood,  whether  in  civil  or  religious  matters. 

From  Spain’s  unlawful  king — the  brother  of  Napoleon 
— or,  rather,  from  the  various  juntas  or  bodies  formed 
in  Spain  to  oppose  the  French  domination,  came  claims 
for  jurisdiction  over  Mexico,  causing  confusion  in  the 
minds  of  the  colonists,  which  culminated  in  the  con- 
spiracies of  Queretero  and  Hidalgo's  cry,  and  the 
proclamation  of  Independence  on  September  15,  1810. 
Under  Hidalgo  an  insurgent  band  seized  various  places 
in  the  central  part  of  the  country,  including  the  great 
silver-producing  town  and  mines  of  Guanajuato,  where, 
unfortunately,  these  first  exponents  of  liberty  committed 
serious  excesses.  Thence,  taking  the  capital  of  the  State 
of  Michoacan — Morelia — they  advanced  upon  the  city  of 
Mexico.  They  engaged  and  defeated  the  royalist  forces 
which  had  been  sent  against  them  by  the  viceroy  Venegas, 
who  had  succeeded  the  Audiencia  and  the  deported 


MEXICO  AND  THE  VICEROYS  111 


Iturrigaray,  at  Monte  de  las  Cruces,  some  twenty  miles 
from  the  capital,  after  a well-contested  battle.  To  the 
generalship  of  Allende  was  mainly  due  this  great  victory, 
and  had  Hidalgo  followed  it  up  by  an  attack  upon  the 
capital  city,  subsequent  operations  might  have  been 
favourable  to  the  insurgents.  As  it  was,  the  royalists 
under  Calleja  attacked  and  captured  Guanajuato,  taking 
a terrible  revenge  upon  its  people — ruthless  cruelties 
such  as,  perpetrated  by  both  sides  in  these  struggles, 
have  repeatedly  written  the  history  of  Mexico’s  revolu- 
tion in  blood.  Finally  Hidalgo  and  his  associates,  at 
Guadalajara  and  elsewhere,  were  after  valiant  fighting, 
discomfited  entirely  ; disaster  overtook  them,  and  the 
warrior-priest,  with  Allende,  Aldama,  and  Jimenez — 
valiant  generals  all — was  shot  at  Chihuahua  in  July,  1811. 
There,  in  the  small  chapel  of  San  Francisco,  his  decapi- 
tated body  was  laid,  and  afterwards  removed  to  Mexico. 

Was  the  spark  of  liberty  extinguished  by  these  reverses  ? 
The  answer  was  furnished  by  yet  another  militant  ecclesi- 
astic— the  famous  Morelos  of  Michoacan.  Stoutly  did 
he  and  his  insurgents  maintain  the  city  of  Cuantla  against 
the  royalist  forces  under  Calleja,  until  famine  compelled 
them  to  evacuate  the  place  under  cover  of  darkness. 
The  defence  of  Cuantla  has  covered  the  name  of  Morelos 
with  glory  in  his  country’s  history,  and  at  the  time  it  was 
watched  even  from  Europe  with  interest,  by  the  eagle  eye 
of  the  great  Wellington.  This  remarkable  soldier-priest 
captured  various  important  places — Orizaba,  Oaxaca,  and 
Acapulco,  and  established  the  first  Mexican  Congress  at 
the  town  of  Chilpancingo,  in  the  State  of  Guerrero,  in 
September,  1813.  But  the  star  of  Mexico’s  national 
independence  had  yet  to  reach  its  zenith.  Disaster 
overtook  the  insurgent  forces  ; all  fortune  abandoned 
them  and  Morelos  was  captured,  court-martialled, 
judged  by  the  Inquisition,  and  shot,  in  December,  1815. 

The  tyranny  of  Ferdinand  VII.  of  Spain  gave  birth 
to  yet  another  scourge  for  Spanish  rule  in  Mexico. 
Mina  was  a Spaniard,  a celebrated  guerilla  chief  in 
the  mountains  of  Navarre,  where  he  waged  war  against 


112 


MEXICO 


Napoleon  and  the  French,  and  that  casus  belli  being 
terminated,  strove  to  raise  a revolution  against  the 
Spanish  sovereign  at  Madrid.  Frustrated  there  he 
fled  to  London,  and  Mexican  refugees  in  that  city — 
among  them  the  padre  Mier — enlisted  his  sympathy 
for  Mexican  independence  ; and,  having  obtained  ad- 
herents both  in  England  and  the  United  States,  Mier 
landed  on  the  Mexican  shores  of  Tamaulipas  and  won 
a series  of  brilliant  victories  with  his  small  force  against 
the  Spanish  royalists.  But  again  history  records,  as  it 
has  ever  recorded  in  the  story  of  freedom  throughout  the 
world,  that  baptism  of  failure  which  must  ever  precede 
success  ; and  this  young  adventurer  for  Mexico’s  inde- 
pendence— he  was  but  twenty-eight — suffered  disaster, 
was  captured,  and  shot  in  November,  1817. 

Thus  it  was  that  the  heroic  efforts  of  all  these  who  had 
given  their  lives  for  the  political  dream  of  an  independent 
Mexico  laid  them  down — not  fruitlessly — upon  the  morn- 
ing of  its  consummation.  To  the  credit  of  the  Church  it 
is  that  the  spirit  of  freedom  first  took  material  form  in 
men  nourished  in  the  shadow  of  the  aisles.  In  Mexico’s 
history  eternal  laurels  have  crowned  the  brows  of  Hidalgo 
and  Morelos ; their  names  are  perpetuated  in  the  great 
tracts  of  land  which  bear  them,  and  their  memory  is 
indelibly  enshrined  in  their  countrymen’s  hearts.  At 
this  period  the  feathers  of  Spain’s  colonial  wing  were 
being  plucked  one  by  one.  In  all  the  countries  of 
Latin  America  the  irresistible  spirit  of  change,  develop- 
ment, and  independence  was  sweeping  over  the 
New  World,  bred  of  the  world-march  of  new  thought 
which  the  French  Revolution  had  set  in  motion.  The 
great  nineteenth  century  had  dawned,  and  the  effects  of 
the  convulsions  of  social  life  had  been  felt,  and  had 
furnished  springs  of  action  even  in  remote  towns  of 
the  South  American  Andes  and  of  the  Mexican  plateau. 
Caracas  and  Chile  in  1810,  Buenos  Ayres  in  1813,  Mexico 
in  1821,  Peru  in  1824 — all  showed  that  the  hour  of  destiny 
had  arrived  and  that  new  nations  were  being  launched 
upon  the  world. 


CHAPTER  VII 


THE  EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  MEXICO 

Monarchical  regime  of  Iturbide  — Great  area  of  Mexican  Empire  — 
Santa  Anna  — The  Holy  Alliance  — Execution  of  Iturbide  — The 
Monroe  doctrine — British  friendship — The  United  States — Masonic 
institutions — Political  parties — Expulsion  of  Spaniards — Revolution 
and  crime  — Clerical  antagonism  — Foreign  complications  — The 
“ pie-war  ” — The  Texan  war  — The  slavery  question  — Mexican 
valour — American  invasion  of  Mexico — Fall  of  Mexico — Treaty  of 
Guadalupe — Cession  of  California — Gold  in  California — Benito  Juarez 
appears — Conservatives  and  Liberals — Massacre  of  Tacubaya — The 
Reform  laws — Disestablishment  of  the  Church — Dishonest  Mexican 
finance — Advent  of  Maximilian — The  English,  Spanish,  and  French 
expedition — Perfidy  of  the  French — Capture  of  Mexico  City  by  the 
French — Crowning  of  Maximilian — Porfirio  Diaz — Rule  of  Maxi- 
milian— Fall  of  his  empire — Death  of  Maximilian — The  tragedy  of 
Queretaro — Diaz  takes  Mexico  City — Presidency  of  Juarez — Lerdo — 
Career  and  character  of  Diaz — First  railways  built — Successful 
administration  of  Diaz — Political  stability — Forward  policy. 


Mexico  began  her  independent  history  with  a monarch, 
a prominent  figure  which  now  stands  forth  in  the  history 
of  the  country,  Iturbide — royalist,  soldier-general,  candi- 
date for  viceroy,  insurgent  chief,  and  Emperor  by  turns. 
Despatched  at  the  head  of  the  Spanish  Royalist  army 
from  the  capital  to  crush  the  insurgent  forces  under 
Guerrero,  who  maintained  defiance  in  the  south,  Itur- 
bide, after  conference  with  the  enemy,  announced 
to  his  officers  and  army  that  he  espoused  and  would 
support  the  cause  of  independence.  Whether  this  was 
a result  of  conviction  of  its  justice,  or  whether  it 
obeyed  dictates  of  personal  ambition  to  whose  success 
a surer  road  seemed  to  open  by  his  defection,  remained 


114 


MEXICO 


best  known  to  himself ; but,  be  it  as  it  were,  his  eloquence 
and  enthusiasm  inspired  all  who  lent  ear  to  him. 

Events  followed  rapidly.  The  “plan  of  Iguala,”  a 
document  proclaiming  the  independence  of  Mexico, 
with  a suggestion  of  royal  rule,  was  drawn  up  and 
promulgated  on  March  2,  1821,  and  the  change  of  side 
by  its  author,  Iturbide,  called  many  other  persons  to 
the  insurgent  cause,  and  city  after  city  fell  to  their 
arms  or  capitulated  at  their  advance.  At  the  moment 
the  last  Spanish  Viceroy,  Don  Juan  O’Donoju,  was 
landing  at  Vera  Cruz,  but,  sagely  taking  in  the  situation, 
he  saw  that  Mexico  was  lost  for  Spain,  proposed  a 
conference,  accepted  the  plan  of  Iguala,  joined  forces 
with  Iturbide,  and,  all  obstacles  having  been  overcome, 
the  insurgent  army  made  its  way  to  the  capital,  entering 
it,  with  Iturbide  at  its  head,  on  September  27,  1821. 
The  triumph  of  the  independent  cause  was  assured 
and  the  birth  of  the  new  Empire  of  Mexico  was 
heralded  at  that  moment. 

The  geographical  extent  of  Mexico  at  that  date  was 
very  considerable.  It  embraced  all  that  enormous  area 
of  territory  of  Texas,  New  Mexico,  California,  the  whole 
of  modern  Mexico  and  Yucatan,  and  the  present  south- 
bounding  republic  of  Guatemala.  This  great  area  of  the 
Empire  of  Mexico  was,  indeed,  the  third  largest  country 
in  the  world,  coming  next  after  the  Russian  and  Chinese 
empires.  Such  was  the  great  political  entity  over  which 
Iturbide's  brief  royal  sway  extended — brief,  for,  crowned 
Emperor  Augustine  I.  on  July  21,  1822,  he  abdicated  on 
March  19, 1823 — a brief  kingship  of  a few  months — left  the 
country,  returned,  hoping  to  benefit  it,  and  was  “executed” 
on  July  19,  1824  ! Thus  passed  the  Empire — the  first 
attempt  for  royal  rule  in  the  Americas,  although  not  the  last. 

It  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  the  birth  of  independence 
in  Mexico  had  brought  forth  peace  and  order  among  the 
Mexicans.  Far  from  it.  If  the  grito  of  Hidalgo  had 
heralded  political  liberty  it  was  also  the  signal  for  the 
almost  continual  internecine  wars  and  bloody  struggles 
which  made  the  name  of  Mexico  a synonym  for  revolu- 


EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  MEXICO  115 


tion  and  bloodshed  for  more  than  half  a century,  and 
which  it  only  began  to  lose  at  the  close  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  The  execution  of  Iturbide  showed  the  rise  of 
that  spirit  of  ferocity  and  remorseless  ingratitude  which 
has  always  characterised  the  political  history  and  strife  of 
Latin  America,  whether  Mexico,  Peru,  Venezuela,  Chile, 
or  any  other  of  the  Hispanic  self-governing  countries. 
Immediately  after  the  formation  of  Iturbide's  regency, 
which  included  O'Donoju,  whose  acts  had  been  repu- 
diated by  Spain,  dissensions  arose,  and  the  first  Con- 
stitutional Congress,  of  February  24,  1822,  soon  formed 
itself  into  political  sections,  some  of  which  regarded 
Iturbide  with  disfavour.  From  his  position  as  Emperor 
he  threw  various  Congressmen  into  prison  for  opposition 
to  the  empire  (a  sentiment  which  grew  rapidly),  and 
finally  dissolved  Congress.  At  this  time  the  somewhat 
sinister  figure  of  Santa-Anna  arose,  with  a promincia- 
miento  at  Vera  Cruz  in  favour  of  a republican  form  of 
government;  and  although  supported  by  Bravo,  Guerrero, 
and  others,  the  insurgents  fell  before  the  forces  of  the 
Emperor.  Iturbide,  however,  did  not  desire  to  disrupt 
the  nation.  He  had  been  crowned  and  anomted  with 
great  pomp  and  ceremony  in  the  beautiful  Cathedral  of 
Mexico,  but  he  abdicated,  and  sailed  on  an  English  ship 
for  Italy,  and  the  Congress  passed  an  Act  pronouncing 
him  an  outlaw  and  traitor.  This  Act,  as  before  stated, 
showed  the  spirit  of  singular  remorselessness  and  fero- 
cious ingratitude  characterising  the  Spanish-Americans’ 
political  methods.  These  were  the  days  of  the  “ Holy 
Alliance,”  which  strove  to  bring  about  Spain’s  re-domina- 
tion of  America,  and  Iturbide,  in  London,  learning  of 
the  plan,  and  ignorant  of  the  iniquitous  Act  launched 
against  him,  embarked  for  Mexico,  thinking  to  lend  his 
sword  on  behalf  of  his  native  country  if  she  were 
threatened  by  the  Alliance.  He  was  captured  and 
illegally  sentenced  by  the  Congress  of  a petty  Mexican 
province — Tamaulipas — and  shot.  Serene  and  disdainful, 
he  fell,  a figure  which  compels  more  respect  than 
censure  in  the  mind  of  the  student  of  to-day. 


116 


MEXICO 


These  were  portentous  times  in  the  history  of  the  New 
World.  It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  independence 
of  Mexico  took  place  in  what  was  a reactionary  time  in 
Europe,  and  the  spirit  of  the  Holy  Alliance  was  rendered 
evident  by  the  attitude  of  France.  But  there  was  Britain 
to  be  reckoned  with.  Britain  did  not  hesitate  to  declare 
for  the  emancipation  of  the  Spanish  colonies,  and  the 
“ Monroe  Doctrine”  was  conceived  by  the  famous  words 
of  Canning  in  "calling  into  being  the  New  World  to 
redress  the  balance  of  the  Old.”  In  August,  1823, 
Canning  sounded  the  American  Government  as  to 
whether  they  “would  act  in  concert  with  Britain  against 
any  aggression  against  the  independence  of  the  Spanish- 
American  Republics,”  which  brought  forth  the  famous 
enunciation  of  President  Monroe  in  Washington  “that 
any  such  aggression  would  be  hostile  to  themselves  and 
dangerous  to  their  peace  and  safety " — the  basis  of  the 
now  well-known  Monroe  Doctrine.  Nevertheless,  the 
United  States  regarded  Mexico  at  that  period  with  little 
favour  or  sympathy,  and  indeed  this  fact  has  been  noted 
with  some  resentment  by  Mexican  historians.  But  it  is 
to  be  recollected  that  the  United  States  itself  was  weak, 
and  could  not  be  expected  to  antagonise  Europe  too 
deeply.  As  it  was,  Mexico  entered  into  the  concert  of 
nations  without  a friend  in  the  world,  save  as  the 
not  necessarily  disinterested  or  altruistic  declaration  of 
Britain  and  the  United  States  might  be  construed  as 
friendship.  But  the  recognition  of  Mexico's  indepen- 
dence by  Britain  in  1825  and  treaty  of  friendship  brought 
the  first  foreign  capital  to  the  land’s  resources,  whilst 
the  war  between  Mexico  and  the  United  States  in  a 
territorial  dispute,  showed  that  a spirit  of  equity  was 
yet  foreign  to  the  Anglo-Saxon  Republic. 

On  the  ruins  of  the  transient  empire  of  Iturbide  the 
building  of  the  Mexican  Republic  was  begun.  The 
National  Constitution  was  proclaimed  in  October,  1824, 
by  the  Federal  Congress,  and  the  famous  insurgent 
leader,  Guadalupe  Victoria,  named  President,  with  Bravo 
as  Vice-President.  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States 


EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  MEXICO  117 


recognised  the  new  Republic  in  the  first  year — 1825 — of 
its  existence,  and  the  latter  country  sent  its  Minister 
in  representation.  Two  political  parties  came  into 
existence — the  Centralists,  principally  Spanish,  and  the 
Federalists — and  to  the  dissensions  of  these  the  continual 
revolutions  and  disturbances  from  that  date  to  the  middle 
of  the  century  were  due.  Another  disturbing  factor  was 
the  introduction  of  Masonic  lodges — the  Scotch  rite  and 
the  York  rite,  the  latter  introduced  by  the  American 
Minister,  which,  becoming  adopted  by  various  partisans, 
were  respectively  opposed  by  others — and  these  Masonic 
institutions  were  the  cause  of  disturbance  in  the  politics 
of  Mexico  for  many  years.  Among  religious  people  the 
word  “ Mason  ” became  a term  of  reproach.  Due  to  the 
work  of  the  York  Masons,  a great  expulsion  of  Spaniards 
took  place  in  1827,  the  Spaniards  having  been  finally 
ousted  from  the  country,  losing  their  last  stronghold  of 
the  Castle  of  San  Juan  de  Ulua  at  Vera  Cruz  in  1825. 

It  might  have  been  supposed  that  Mexico,  having 
gained  its  heart’s  desire  of  freedom  from  the  dominion 
of  Spain,  with  its  own  independent  Government,  would 
have  established  itself  in  peace,  and  continued  on  along 
the  lines  of  national  development.  But  it  was  not  so. 
Insistent  and  sanguinary  revolution  reared  its  sinister 
head,  to  destroy  all  peace  and  security,  and  hold  the 
country  in  barbaric  strife  for  many  years.  It  would  be 
tedious  to  follow  the  causes  and  incidents  of  these  pro- 
nunciamientos,  imprisonings,  seizings,  shootings,  execu- 
tions, treachery,  cruelty,  and  bloodshed  of  which  this 
half-century  of  Mexican  history  is  largely  built  up.  The 
profession  of  arms  became  almost  the  only  one  which 
ambitious  men  would  follow,  and  ambition  and  unscru- 
pulousness went  hand  in  hand.  A condition  of  chronic 
disorder  grew  which  paralysed  the  civil  development  of 
the  country,  made  bankrupt  the  national  treasury,  and 
prostituted  the  people  to  becoming  mere  levies  of  insur- 
gents, to  be  drawn  upon  by  this  or  that  revolutionary 
leader  whose  sinister  star  for  the  moment  happened  to 
be  in  the  ascendant.  Armed  highwaymen  infested  the 


118 


MEXICO 


roads  and  inhabited  the  mountains,  and  travel  was 
impossible  without  an  escort.  A terrible  disregard  of 
human  life  resulted,  and  became  so  strong  a characteristic 
of  the  Mexicans  as  has  even  to-day  not  become  eradi- 
cated. 

In  1833  the  beginning  of  a serious  cause  of  civil 
trouble  made  its  appearance,  and  one  which  has  pro- 
foundly influenced  the  Mexicans  and  their  life.  This  was 
the  antagonism  between  the  people  and  the  politicians, 
and  the  clergy.  Intensely  religious,  in  the  Romish  faith, 
the  Mexicans,  like  the  South  Americans,  were  subject  to 
periods  of  bitter  and  relentless  feeling  against  clerical 
domination,  the  result  mainly  of  the  extortions  of  the 
Church  and  its  insidious  acquiring  of  temporal  power 
and  amassing  of  wealth.  Speaking  generally,  the  Church 
brought  about  its  own  disestablishment  by  its  own  fault. 
Enactments  were  passed  at  this  date  to  curtail  the  power 
and  privileges  of  the  clergy,  declaring  that  tithes  should 
not  be  collectable  by  civil  law,  nor  the  fulfilment  of 
monastic  vows  enforced,  and  prohibiting  the  Church 
from  meddling  with  public  instruction.  The  political 
parties  which  then  grew  to  being  for  or  against  these 
measures  respectively  were  the  Liberals  and  Conserva- 
tives, and  to  their  dissensions  were  mainly  due  the  sub- 
sequent disorders ; and  up  to  the  present  day  they  form 
the  party  divisions  of  Mexican  politics.  These  measures 
were  the  precursor  of  the  famous  Reform  Laws  of  1859, 
under  Juarez,  which  disestablished  the  Church  and 
appropriated  its  property. 

The  incessant  turbulence  at  home  was  varied  from 
time  to  time  by  acute  questions  with  foreign  Powers. 
In  1829  Spain  made  a determined  attempt  to  regain 
Mexico,  with  an  expedition  of  4,000  men,  which,  how- 
ever, was  absolutely  repulsed  by  the  Federal  army  under 
Santa-Anna  and  Mier  : the  Spanish  general,  Barradas, 
surrendering  his  armament  and  flags,  at  the  news  of 
which  immense  rejoicing  took  possession  of  Mexico. 
The  independence  of  the  Republic  was  recognised  by 
Spain  in  1836.  Two  years  later — 1838 — a complication 


EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  MEXICO  119 


arose  with  France,  and  the  war  known  as  the  Guerra 
de  los  Pasteles,  or  “ Pie-War,”  came  about,  its  singular 
designation  resulting  from  the  claim  of  a French  pastry- 
cook for  sixty  thousand  dollars  as  indemnity  for  the  theft 
of  some  pies  ! Expensive  confections  these  proved  to 
be,  for  under  the  Prince  de  Joinville  the  French  landed 
and  surprised  Vera  Cruz,  attacked  the  house  of  Santa- 
Anna — this  famous  general  losing  a leg  by  a cannon-shot — 
whilst,  on  peace  being  concluded  soon  afterwards,  Mexic 
agreed  to  pay  $600,000  to  settle  all  questions  against  her 

Following  upon  these  incidents  revolutions  and  pn 
nunciamientos  succeeded  each  other  like  autumn  leaves, 
and  rights  and  obligations  were  trampled  underfoot 
almost  as  ruthlessly  as  these.  In  1837  the  Federal 
system  had  been  supplanted  by  “Centralism,”  and  the 
marchings  of  armies  and  the  rise  and  fall  of  generals  anc 
Presidents  come  thick  and  fast  throughout  the  country. 
A party  was  formed  for  the  restitution  of  a monarchical 
form  of  government  following  upon  the  publication  of 
a pamphlet  by  Gutierrez  Estrada  to  the  effect — and  the 
student  of  history  will  scarcely  contradict  it — that  the 
Mexican  people  were  not  fitted  to  live  under  a Republican 
regime. 

But  the  greatest  event  of  this  period  of  Mexican 
history  now  looms  up — the  war  with  the  United  States. 
The  origin  of  this  was  the  question  concerning  the  great 
State  of  Texas.  Much  earlier,  in  1821,  some  colonisation 
of  that  territory  had  been  initiated  by  the  Austins,  father 
and  son,  who  founded  the  city  of  that  name.  The 
Austins  were  Americans,  and  had  obtained  permission 
from  the  Government  of  Mexico  to  establish  a colony, 
but  disagreements  soon  came  about.  American  fili- 
busters of  lawless  character  began  to  settle  up  the 
country,  as  well  as  peaceful  colonists,  and  questions  soon 
arose  as  to  political  representation  and  influence.  A 
decree  had  been  made  by  the  Mexican  Government 
forbidding  slavery,  and  this  became  a poignant  cause 
of  discontent  to  the  Texans,  who,  partaking  of  the 
character  of  the  Americans  of  that  period,  saw  nothing 


120 


MEXICO 


incompatible  in  holding  their  fellow-creatures  in 
bondage  under  the  aegis  of  “ Liberty  ” ! Whatever  may 
have  been  the  faults  displayed — and  there  were  faults, 
both  on  the  Mexican  and  the  Texan  side — the  fact 
remains  to  the  honour  of  Mexico  that  she  forbade  slavery, 
which  showed  her  civilisation  certainly  not  inferior 
to  her  Anglo-Saxon  neighbours.  The  lawlessness  and 
system  of  slavery  established  in  Texas  at  that  period 
bore  afterwards  a terrible  fruit,  which  the  “ race-war  " and 
"colour-line”  of  to-day  show  are  not  yet  eradicated. 
Santa-Anna  had  been  sent  against  Texas,  and  he  played 
a far  from  creditable  part.  The  war  for  Texan  independ- 
ence began  in  1835,  and  its  fortunes  varied  at  first,  the 
Mexican  general  treating  the  Texans  with  barbaric 
cruelty  upon  winning  a first  engagement.  But  Sam 
Houston  arose — his  name  is  greeted  with  acclamation 
in  Texas  to-day — and  Santa-Anna,  beaten  and  captured, 
took  a discreditable  and  craven  part,  signing,  in  return 
for  his  release  and  safety,  an  agreement  to  recognise 
Texan  independence.  Mexico,  however,  did  not 
recognise  this,  notwithstanding  that  a Texan  Constitu- 
tion was  set  up  in  1836.  Returning  now  to  Santa-Anna’s 
Presidency,  his  erratic  acts  disgusted  his  countrymen, 
and  pronunciamientos  followed.  Hoping  to  divert 
popular  opinion  from  himself,  Santa-Anna  proposed  the 
prosecution  of  a war  with  Texas,  for  its  recovery,  not- 
withstanding his  personal  previous  agreements. 

The  assertion  of  hegemony  by  the  United  States 
brought  on  the  beginnings  of  war  between  the  two 
dominating  peoples  of  the  North  American  continent. 
The  Republic  of  Texas,  the  United  States  declared,  must 
remain  untouched  ; any  hostile  act  against  it  would  be 
considered  directed  against  the  States  itself,  with  which 
Texas  was  now  to  be  incorporated.  Mexico,  torn  by 
dissensions  of  its  own,  was  not  in  a good  position  to 
oppose  the  policy  of  its  neighbour  at  the  moment.  The 
revolutions  against  Santa-Anna  culminated  in  his  defeat 
and  departure  from  the  country  under  an  act  of 
banishment. 


EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  MEXICO  121 


It  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  the  Mexicans,  oppressed 
as  they  were  by  the  revolutions  and  disasters  arising 
from  their  own  character,  were  without  any  good  and 
noble  traits  which  might  redeem  the  lawlessness  from 
which  they  suffered.  Many  deeds  of  Mexican  arms,  of 
self-abnegation  in  times  of  peril,  and  of  heroic  acts  in  the 
face  of  deadly  odds,  have  left  glorious  episodes  in  their 
history.  It  is  to  be  recollected  that  the  struggles  in 
which  they  were  engaged  arose  often  from  an  excess 
of  zeal  for  liberty,  and  a strong  spirit  of  individualism 
which  could  not  support  political  oppression  or  affront. 
An  instance  of  their  heroic  spirit  is  afforded  by  an 
incident  in  the  American  War.  The  storming  of  the 
Castle  of  Chapultepec  was  being  carried  on  by  the 
United  States  troops,  who,  after  severe  hand-to-hand 
fighting,  penetrated  to  the  fortress  and  made  their  way 
to  the  turret,  to  haul  down  the  banner  upon  which  the 
colours  of  Mexico,  and  the  eagle,  serpent  and  cactus 
were  displayed.  But  the  turret  was  disputed  hotly  by 
a few  young  Mexicans — boys  almost — military  cadets 
there.  Seeing  their  beloved  flag  about  to  fall  into  the 
hands  of  the — to  them — hated  Yankees,1  they  fought  to 
the  last  drop,  and,  rather  than  the  standard  should  be 
captured,  one  of  them,  wrapping  it  round  his  body, 
leaped  from  the  turret  and  was  dashed  to  pieces  on  the 
stones  below  ! 

But  we  anticipate.  The  first  battle  between  the  forces 
of  Mexico  and  the  United  States  was  fought  at  Palo  Alto 
in  the  north,  in  May,  1846  ; the  command  of  the  former 
being  under  General  Arista,  and  the  latter  under  General 
Zachary  Taylor,  but  the  Mexicans  were  defeated.  Texas 
had  been  declared  a part  of  the  American  Union  in  the 
previous  year  (December,  1845),  and  the  military  occupa- 
tion by  the  Americans  of  Mexican  territory — for  the 
boundaries  were  ill-defined — formed  the  culminating 
casus  belli.  Torn  by  dissensions  at  home,  and  betrayed 
by  the  treachery  of  her  own  generals — among  them  the 

1 The  designation  of  Yankee  is  very  generally  used  in  Spanish- 
American,  for  the  Americans — not,  however,  in  an  offensive  sense. 


122 


MEXICO 


traitorous  Paredes — Mexico  was  in  no  position  to  face 
a war  with  her  powerful  neighbour.  Following  on  the 
battle  of  Palo  Alto,  Santa-Anna,  who  had  returned,  had 
been  elected  President,  but  had  declared  he  could  serve 
his  country  best  by  leading  its  army,  and  he  advanced 
against  the  Americans  under  Taylor.  Previous  to  this, 
the  Americans,  with  a force  of  6,700  men,  had  taken  the 
city  of  Monterey — a pretty,  Spanish-built  town  far  within 
the  border  of  Mexico,  which  had  been  established  by  one 
of  the  viceroys — notwithstanding  that  the  Mexicans, 
10,000  strong,  under  General  Ampudea,  had  defended  it. 
The  engagement  under  Santa-Anna  lasted  for  two  days — 
the  battle  of  Buena  Vista,  February,  1847.  Its  issue  long 
hung  in  the  balance,  and  although  the  Americans  gained 
the  victory,  it  was  a doubtful  and  indecisive  one. 

The  American  Government  now  decided  to  push  the 
war  to  the  end.  But  serious  obstacles  discouraged  the 
attempt  to  march  upon  the  capital  of  Mexico.  The  vast 
stretches  of  appalling  desert  which  at  that  time  formed 
that  part  of  the  continent  of  North  America — now 
included  in  Texas,  Chihuahua,  and  Coahuila — were 
waterless,  and  without  resources,  and  beaten  by  a fiery 
sun ; conditions  which  to-day,  in  some  parts  of  the 
regions,  are  scarcely  altered.  The  bravery  and  ferocity 
of  the  Mexicans,  who  were — and  are — among  the  most 
expert  horsemen  in  the  world,  would  have  rendered 
the  advance  over  the  intervening  topographical  wastes 
between  Mexico’s  frontier  and  her  capital  of  extremely 
doubtful  issue.  Attack  was  made,  therefore,  by  sea,  and 
an  army  of  12,000  men  under  General  Winifield  Scott 
landed  at  Vera  Cruz  on  March  9,  1847.  By  September 
of  the  same  year  Vera  Cruz,  Puebla  Contreras,  Molino 
del  Rey,  Chapultepec,  had  all  been  the  scene  of  strenuous 
engagements  ; but  Mexico  was  to  lose,  and  the  invading 
Anglo-Saxons,  having  eaten  their  way  to  the  heart  of  the 
Latin  Republic,  against  considerable  odds,  occupied  the 
capital  on  September  14,  1847. 

Split  into  factions  by  political  strife,  which  even  the 
hammering  at  their  gates  of  a common  enemy  had  not 


EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  MEXICO  123 


sufficed  to  heal,  Mexico  received  a terrible  lesson.  The 
history  of  Mexico  had  repeated  itself.  Just  as  Cortes 
and  his  Spaniards  had  penetrated  from  Vera  Cruz  to 
Tenochtitlan,  thanks  to  dissensions  among  the  Aztec 
inhabitants  of  the  country,  so  had  the  Americans 
ascended  over  the  same  route  to  a similar  victory  by 
analogous  circumstances.  Even  whilst  the  victorious 
forces  of  the  Anglo-Saxons  were  marching  onwards,  the 
mad  political  generals  and  transient  Presidents  of  Mexico 
were  launching  fironunciamientos,  fighting  among  them- 
selves, and  shedding  the  blood  of  their  own  countrymen  ; 
and  not  until  February  2,  1848,  was  peace  entered  into 
with  the  Americans,  and  the  treaty  of  Guadalupe  Hildalgo 
signed.  Mexico  ceded  to  the  United  States  under  this 
agreement  the  area  of  an  empire  ! Texas  had  already 
been  lost ; California  and  New  Mexico 1 were  given 
up  now,  rich  and  extensive  regions,  although  little 
known  at  the  time,  as  indemnity  for  which  the  United 
States  Government  paid  the  sum  of  fifteen  million 
dollars. 

So  was  concluded  what  the  Mexicans  have  termed  “the 
unjust  war,”  and  the  historian  will  probably  not  feel 
called  upon  to  dispute  the  designation.  Great  bitterness 
of  feeling  between  the  two  nations  was  aroused  on 
account  of  this  conquest  and  cession  of  territory,  which, 
among  the  Mexicans  of  the  great  plateau,  is,  even  at  the 
present  day,  far  from  being  forgotten.  It  was  but  a 
short  time  after  the  cession  of  California  that  gold  was 
discovered — the  famous  days  of  1849 — and  Mexico  did 
not  know  what  she  was  losing.  Perhaps  in  the  interests 
of  the  development  of  the  fine  State  of  California  and  its 
progressive  people,  circumstances  were  for  the  best  as 
they  were.  Santa-Anna  disappears  from  the  scene  in 
1855.  After  the  war  he  had  assumed  semi-regal  titles 
and  pretensions,  and  had  brought  about  or  permitted 
a further  cession  in  the  unpopular  treaty  with  the  United 

1 The  English  reader  may  ask,  Where  is  New  Mexico  ? It  is  that 
territory  lying  between  Arizona  and  Texas,  forming  part  of  the  American 
Union. 


124 


MEXICO 


States.  Further  revolutions  and  pronunciamientos  fol- 
lowed, and  civil  war  divided  the  country. 

The  figure  of  Juarez,  famous  in  his  country’s  history, 
was  appearing,  and  this  remarkable  man  became  Presi- 
dent in  January,  1858.  In  the  previous  year  a new 
Constitution  had  been  adopted,  and  is  that  which  has 
remained  in  force  to  the  present  day.  It  was  duly 
subjected  to  a futile  pronunciamiento  ! Further  legal 
enactments  were  made  by  the  Liberals  against  the  clergy, 
as  well  as  the  anti-mortmain  statute,  framed  by  Lerdo 
with  the  object  of  releasing  the  great  properties  held  by 
civil  and  religious  corporations ; and  it  was  mainly 
aimed  at  the  power  and  wealth  of  the  Church — a fore- 
taste of  the  Reform  Laws. 

Benito  Juarez  was  a Mexican  in  whom  no  strain  of 
Spanish  blood  existed,  his  parents  having  been  pure- 
blooded  Indians  of  the  Zapotecas  of  Oaxaca.  Shepherd, 
student  of  divinity,  Governor  of  Oaxaca,  Minister  of 
Justice,  and  President  by  turns,  the  name  and  fame  of 
this  remarkable  example  of  aboriginal  intelligence  stands 
strongly  out  in  the  history  of  his  country.  The  Con- 
servative party  were  not  slow  in  launching  pronuncia- 
mientos,  and  disaster  befel  the  Liberal  Government  of 
Juarez,  who  was  compelled  to  flee  for  the  time  being. 
The  whole  of  the  Republic  again  became  the  scene  of 
desolating  civil  warfare,  due  to  the  bitter  struggles  of 
the  Liberal  and  Conservative  parties.  Generals,  calling 
themselves  Presidents,  set  up  Governments  in  various 
parts  of  the  country,  and  pronunciamientos  and  blood- 
shed were  the  order  of  the  day.  But  chief  among  the 
sanguinary  scenes  of  this  appalling  drama,  carried  out 
with  the  religion  of  Christ  as  its  mainspring,  was  the 
Tacubaya  massacre.  This  place,  a beautiful  residential 
suburb  of  the  City  of  Mexico,  became  the  field  of  a 
strenuous  engagement,  the  victorious  forces  of  the 
Conservatives,  under  General  Marquez,  signalling  their 
triumph  by  an  abominable  massacre,  in  which  the 
medical  attendants,  including  an  English  physician,  all 
of  whom  had  voluntarily  given  their  services  for  succour 


EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  MEXICO  125 


of  the  wounded,  were  taken  out  and  deliberately  put  to 
death  in  cold  blood,  by  order  of  the  ferocious  Marquez. 
Another  murder  lies  to  the  account  of  Marquez — that 
of  Ocampo,  one  of  the  best  of  the  Liberal  statesmen. 
But  the  Liberal  cause  gained  ground.  Juarez  landed  at 
Vera  Cruz  ; and  the  famous  Reform  Laws  of  July  12, 
1859,  were  made,  forming  part  of  the  basis  of  the  ad- 
ministration set  up  at  Vera  Cruz.  This  code  was  directed 
against  clericalism.  The  property  of  the  Church  was 
confiscated  and  nationalised  ; the  clergy  were  severely 
arraigned  as  the  authors  of  the  sanguinary  and  fratricidal 
wars  which  had  devastated  the  country ; accused  of 
abusing  their  power  in  a scandalous  manner,  with  baleful 
control  of  their  wealth  ; and,  in  short,  the  Church  was 
disestablished  and  religious  freedom  proclaimed,  together 
with  the  abolishing  of  religious  orders  and  institutions, 
whilst  marriage  was  later  declared  a civil  contract. 

Torn  by  their  unceasing  dissensions  at  home,  the  un- 
fortunate Mexican  nation  now  brought  upon  themselves 
complications  from  abroad.  The  Government  of  Juarez, 
having  triumphed  over  the  Conservatives,  had  been 
installed  in  the  capital  amid  popular  enthusiasm.  But 
what  was  the  state  of  the  country  over  which  it  ruled  ? 
Sources  of  public  revenue  were  paralysed  or  hypothe- 
cated ; there  was  not  a dollar  in  the  treasury  ; and  private 
enterprise  and  the  activities  of  ordinary  wealth  were 
ruined.  Funds  must  be  obtained  in  some  way  ; and  an 
Act  of  Congress  was  passed  in  July,  1861,  suspending  the 
payment  of  Mexico’s  foreign  debts.  This  grave  step  laid 
Mexico  open  to  the  most  serious  charges  in  European 
capitals,  and  her  action  was  stigmatised  as  repudia- 
tion and  robbery,  especially  in  London,  where  the  first 
Mexican  loan  had  been  contracted  in  1823.  This  act  of 
the  Mexican  Liberal  Congress  was  naturally  painted  in 
its  worst  colours  by  the  reactionary  representatives  of 
the  Conservative  party  in  Europe,  who,  desirous  of 
bringing  back  a priestly  and  monarchical  regime,  thought 
this  an  opportunity  and  motive  for  compassing  it  by 
means  of  European  intervention.  In  justice  to  Mexico 


126 


MEXICO 


at  that  period  it  must  be  chronicled  that  repudiation  of 
her  debts  was  not  intended  ; only  suspension  in  her 
temporary  distress.  But  the  reprehensible  Act  of  Presi- 
dent Miramon,  in  violating  the  British  Legation  and 
seizing  $660,000  belonging  to  the  British  bondholders, 
in  November,  i860,  had  not  been  forgotten. 

Maximilian — the  picturesque  and  melancholy-appear- 
ing figure  : the  ill-fated  monarch  of  an  unnatural  New 
World  empire — was  the  culminating  figure  of  Mexico’s 
internecine  warfare  and  questionable  financial  acts.  The 
story  of  Maximilian  stands  out  from  the  pages  of  Mexico’s 
history  in  pathetic  colours,  wringing  a sigh  from  us  as  we 
scan  its  pages,  or  halt  a space  in  the  museum  of  Mexico’s 
capital  before  the  gilded  tawdry  coach  of  the  ill-fated 
Austrian,  which  is  preserved  there  in  musty  ruin.  For  up 
rose  Napoleon  III., pricking  up  his  ears  at  this  suggestion 
of  a monarchy  in  America  ; and,  urged  by  him,  the  tri- 
partite convention  by  France,  Spain,  and  England  was 
brought  to  being  in  London,  October,  1861,  whose  pur- 
pose was — or,  at  any  rate  by  the  British  and  Spanish — 
intervention  and  the  enforcement  of  the  just  claims 
of  their  bondholders  against  the  defaulting  Mexicans. 
Sailing  from  Europe,  the  fleets  of  the  three  Powers 
arrived  at  Vera  Cruz  at  the  end  of  the  year.  No  idea  of 
conquest  of,  or  interposition  in,  Mexican  territory  was 
intended  in  this  action,  only  enforcement  of  just  claims, 
and  so  it  was  proclaimed  ; and  a conference  having  been 
celebrated  with  the  Mexican  representatives,  and  a pre- 
liminary agreement  entered  into,  the  Spanish  and  British 
ships  in  all  sincerity  withdrew  and  sailed  for  home.  Not 
so  the  French — and  the  charge  of  perfidy  is  recorded 
against  France  for  her  act — for  the  troops  of  Napoleon 
repudiated  the  agreement  and  entered  upon  a war  of 
conquest  or  subjugation.  Severe  reverses  marked  their 
campaign  at  first,  the  Mexicans  obstinately  defending  the 
integrity  of  the  country,  under  the  administration  of 
Juarez,  with  able  generals  at  the  front.  Among  these 
was  Diaz — later  the  famous  President  Diaz — who  won 
some  early  laurels  in  the  defence  of  Puebla.  But  Puebla 


CITY  OK  OAXACA:  SPAXISH-COLONIAI.  ARCHITECTURE;  THE  PORTALES  OF  THE  MUNICIPAL  PALACE 

AND  PLAZA. 


EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  MEXICO  127 


fell,  Juarez  abandoned  the  capital,  and  the  French,  under 
General  Forey,  entered  the  City  of  Mexico  without 
opposition  and  set  up  a junta  of  prominent  Mexicans 
to  decide  on  the  form  of  government  to  be  adopted. 
The  decision  of  the  junta  was  for  a limited  monarchy, 
whose  sovereign  should  be  designated  Emperor  of 
Mexico,  and  whose  crown  should  be  offered  to  Maxi- 
milian, Archduke  of  Austria,  or,  failing  him,  to  some  other 
Catholic  prince  who  might  be  nominated  by  “the  kind- 
ness of  his  Majesty  Napoleon  III.  of  France!”  So  it 
befel  ; a deputation  of  Mexicans  was  sent  to  the  Haps- 
burg  prince  in  his  castle  upon  the  far-off  Adriatic  Sea. 
Maximiliano  accepted  under  certain  conditions  ; arrived  in 
Mexico,  and  in  company  with  his  wife  Carlota,  daughter 
of  Leopold,  King  of  the  Belgians,  was  crowned  with  great 
solemnity  in  the  Cathedral  of  Mexico  in  June,  1864. 

Meantime  the  Liberal  party,  thus  ousted  from  the  seat 
of  Government,  was  not  idle.  Juarez  established  his 
administration  in  successive  northern  towns,  approaching 
the  United  States  border.  War  to  the  death  against  the 
monarchical  system,  which  had  been  crammed  down  the 
Liberal  throat,  was  their  slogan  and  source  of  inspiration. 
The  doughty  Porfirio  Diaz,  nominated  to  a high  com- 
mand, was  despatched  to  Oaxaca  ; besieged  there  by  the 
French  under  Bazaine,  making  a most  determined  stand  ; 
surrendered  at  length  through  lack  of  food,  ammunition, 
and  disaffection  among  his  own  people  ; was  captured, 
imprisoned  ; escaped  ; turned  against  the  pursuing 
enemy  and  overcame  them,  re-capturing  again  his  native 
city,  and  once  more  turned  the  tables  upon  the  Con- 
servatives and  the  Monarchy. 

The  star  of  Empire,  which  shone  for  less  than 
three  years  under  Maximilian,  now  sets  with  dramatic 
suddenness.  From  the  first  it  was  seen  that  the  Emperor 
was  no  bigoted  Churchman,  and  his  refusal  to  rescind  the 
clauses  of  the  Reform  Laws  involved  the  Imperial  Govern- 
ment in  grave  questions  and  antagonisms  with  the  dis- 
appointed clericals  ; and  the  Emperor,  indeed,  showed 
himself  much  in  sympathy  with  the  Liberals.  These, 


128 


MEXICO 


however,  bent  upon  their  own  absolute  way,  would  hold 
no  parley  with  him,  notwithstanding  that  overtures  had 
been  made  to  Diaz  after  the  recapture  of  Oaxaca. 

The  end  approaches  rapidly.  The  city  of  Puebla,  a 
Conservative  stronghold,  falls  before  Diaz  and  three 
thousand  of  the  Republican  army,  and  siege  is  laid  to 
the  City  of  Mexico  in  April,  1867.  Maximilian  had  seen 
the  trend  towards  the  inevitable,  but  had  striven,  during 
the  previous  year,  to  consolidate  the  clerical  party,  whilst 
the  Empress  Carlota — brave  and  pathetic  figure  of  these 
dramatic  events — had  gone  to  France  to  implore  Napo- 
leon to  countermand  his  perfidious  withdrawal  of  the 
French  troops,  and  to  endeavour  to  secure  a settlement 
of  the  matters  at  issue  with  the  clericals  with  Pope  Pius 
IX.  It  was  useless.  The  French  army  left  the  shores  of 
the  country  they  had  wantonly  outraged,  abandoning  the 
unfortunate  figure-head  placed  there  as  a result  of  French 
machinations,  with  only  the  Belgians  and  Austrians  of 
Maximilian’s  immediate  following.  The  ill-fated  Austrian 
wavered  between  his  advisers — whether  to  abandon  the 
thankless  task  upon  which  he  was  engaged,  or  whether  to 
stay  with  it  to  the  bitter  end.  He  ultimately  chose  the 
latter  course  ; reversing  a first  intention  of  abdicating, 
returned  to  Mexico  city  ; left  thence  for  Queretaro,  and 
intrenched  himself,  with  an  effective  force  of  some  nine 
thousand  Imperialists,  in  that  town.  The  Republicans, 
twenty-one  thousand  strong,  laid  strenuous  siege  to  and 
attacked  the  place,  suffering  several  repulses ; but  the 
treachery  of  Lopez,  of  the  Imperialist  army,  afforded 
them  the  entrance  to  the  town,  and  Queretaro  fell. 

The  fate  of  the  Emperor  Maximilian  was  now  in  the 
hands  of  Juarez.  A court-martial  was  called,  and  Maxi- 
milian was  permitted  to  select  counsel  for  his  defence. 
The  deliberations  resulted  in  a sentence  of  death  against 
Maximilian  and  his  two  chiefs  and  faithful  generals, 
Miramon  and  Mejia.  Juarez  took  his  pen  to  sign  the 
death-warrant,  when  before  him — the  Indian  President, 
son  of  a despised  race — there  appeared  and  kneeled  the 
figure  of  the  Austrian  princess,  Carlota,  supplicating  for 


EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  MEXICO  129 


clemency  for  her  husband.  It  is  said  that  Juarez  wavered, 
but  at  that  fateful  moment  the  stern  Lerdo  appeared  at 
the  door  of  the  apartment,  and  shaking  a warning  finger, 
uttered  those  words  which  sealed  the  doom  of  Maxi- 
milian, and  which  have  come  down  ever  since  in 
Mexico’s  history  as  a species  of  national  axiom — “ Ahora 
6 nunca  se  salva  la  patria!”1  Juarez  signed;  the 
condemned  Emperor  took  his  stand  upon  the  Cerro  de 
las  Campanas  outside  Queretaro,  and  faced  the  file  of 
carbines  pointed  at  his  breast,  serene  and  dignified. 
"Take  you  the  place  of  honour  in  the  centre,”  he  said  in 
turn  to  Miramon  and  Mejia — the  latter  a full-blooded 
Indian  general  who  had  been  privately  offered,  and  had 
refused,  a pardon  by  Juarez.  But  both  declined,  and  the 
three  brave  men  faced  forward.  A volley  rang  out  upon 
the  early  morning  air,  and  with  it  passed  the  life  of 
Maximilian  and  his  chiefs,  and  the  last  Imperial  regime 
of  Mexico. 

This  execution — or  murder — of  Maximilian — for  the 
student  is  at  liberty  to  term  it  which  he  will,  according 
to  the  trend  of  his  sympathies — took  place  on  June  19, 
1867.  The  wife  of  the  ill-fated  member  of  the  un- 
fortunate House  of  Hapsburg  went  mad,  and  in  that 
state  lived  long  in  Europe.  To  the  commander  of  the 
Austrian  warship,  who,  arriving  at  Vera  Cruz,  demanded 
the  remains  of  the  “ Emperor  of  Mexico,”  answer  was 
returned  by  the  Mexicans  that  no  such  person  was 
known  ; when  he  then  requested  the  body  of  “ Maxi- 
milian of  Austria  ” it  was  delivered  to  him.  “ Savages 
and  barbarians”  was  the  verdict  of  Europe  against  the 
Mexicans  for  the  termination  of  this  drama,  and  only  of 
recent  years — 1901 — have  diplomatic  relations  been  re- 
opened between  Mexico  and  Austria.  The  impartial 
historian  sees  in  the  denouement  the  dictates  of  fate  for 
a Republican  regime  throughout  the  New  World,  and 
acknowledges  the  philosophical  right  for  this  form  of 
government  ; although  it  may  well  be  open  to  question 
if  the  republicanism  of  the  Americans  has  yet  brought 
1 “ Now  or  never  for  our  country’s  salvation.” 

10 


130 


MEXICO 


much  of  advancement  to  mankind  in  general  or  to  their 
own  civilisation  in  particular.  The  figure  of  Maximilian, 
weak  though  it  may  have  been,  was  not  without  nobility; 
nor  did  his  brief  rule  lack  possibilities  for  the  nation — 
one  party  of  which  had  invited  his  advent  and  the  other 
consummated  his  destruction. 

The  City  of  Mexico  capitulated  to  Diaz.  President 
Juarez  returned  thither  and  assumed  the  reins  of  govern- 
ment amid  general  approval  and  that  popular  enthusiasm 
which  usually  acclaims  a change  of  regime  in  any  time 
or  country,  and  which  was  followed  a few  years  later  by 
renewed  dissensions.  But  the  figure  and  name  of  Juarez 
are  engraved  on  the  history  of  his  country  among  its 
greatest,  and  furnish  an  example  of  the  possibilities  of 
intellect  and  power  to  be  encountered  in  the  aboriginal 
races  of  Mexico,  stifled  but  not  destroyed  by  the  advent 
of  the  white  race.  Juarez  is  the  only  President  of 
Mexico  who  has  died  in  the  occupancy  of  his  office  1 
He  was  followed  by  Lerdo,  against  whose  government  a 
pronunciamicnto  and  revolution  was  launched,  with  a 
result  that  Lerdo  fled  to  the  United  States.  An  event  of 
much  industrial  importance  to  the  country  took  place 
during  Lerdo’s  term — the  completion  and  opening  of 
the  railway  from  Vera  Cruz  to  the  capital,  in  January, 
1873,  thus  placing  in  connection  with  the  seaboard  and 
the  outside  world  the  much-contested  City  of  Mexico, 
with  its  chequered  history. 

The  fall  of  Lerdo  was  the  signal  for,  or  rather  the 
result  of,  the  coming  forward  of  the  most  prominent 
figure  of  Mexico’s  modern  history  — a figure,  more- 
over, which  links  the  turbulent  past  with  progressive 
Mexico  of  to-day.  This  is  the  figure  of  Porfirio  Diaz, 
the  son  of  an  innkeeper  : student  for  priesthood,  law 
student,  revolutionist,  soldier,  statesman,  and  President 
by  turns.  Diaz  has  also  Indian  blood  in  his  veins,  upon 
the  maternal  side.  After  the  events  connected  with  the 
fall  of  the  Empire  the  ambitions  of  Diaz  found  outlet  in 
the  disaffections  against  Lerdo’s  government.  It  was 
hardly  to  be  expected  that  the  ambitions  and  jealousies 


EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  MEXICO  131 


of  the  times  could  yet  give  way  to  consolidation  for 
national  interests  and  desire  for  peace  and  development ; 
and  the  only  hope  for  the  country  was  in  the  advent  of  a 
strong  man  and  a strong  system,  such  as,  under  better 
auspices,  the  monarchical  regime  might  have  afforded. 
The  strong  man  appeared  in  the  very  antithesis  of 
monarchy — Porfirio  Diaz  ; and  the  autocratic  regime — 
almost  monarchical  except  in  name — in  the  military-civil 
government  which  followed.  Good,  indeed,  seemed  to 
proceed  out  of  evil,  and  the  autocratic  President  of 
Mexico  came  through  chaos  to  power  as  a revolutionist 
himself,  by  the  edge  of  the  sword,  shedding  his  own 
countrymen's  blood,  and  borne  on  the  crest  of  an  in- 
surrectionary wave.  Yet  there  was  more  behind  the 
fortunes  and  character  of  Diaz  than  mere  selfish  ambition 
or  the  habit  of  a disorderly  soldier-spirit.  He  had  early 
conceived  Liberal  views  against  clerical  domination,  and 
his  earlier  career  showed  loftier  aspirations  than  those 
of  the  ordinary  tawdry  revolutionist  of  the  times,  who, 
under  the  name  of  liberty,  indulged  too  often  personal 
or  party  licence  against  law,  decency,  and  humanity. 
Diaz,  after  the  revolution,  assumed  executive  power  in 
November,  1876,  and  after  a brief  interval  took  the  oath 
and  Presidential  chair  on  May  5,  1877.  The  term  of 
President  Gonzalez  followed,  and  during  this  measures 
of  civil  progress  were  inaugurated.  Diplomatic  relations 
were  reopened  with  Great  Britain,  and  a beginning 
made  to  adjust  the  debt  with  the  foreign  bond-holders. 
The  Mexican  Central  Railway,  linking  the  Republic  with 
its  neighbour  the  United  States,  was  inaugurated,  and 
was  an  important  factor  in  the  political  settling-down  of 
the  country. 

Diaz  was  re-elected  to  the  Presidency  for  December  1, 
1884.  From  that  period  until  the  present  day  he  has  held 
the  office  continuously — seven  Presidential  terms — a 
regime  which  has  partaken  more  of  the  nature  of  a heredi- 
tary sovereignty  than  of  an  elective  post.  It  is  to  be  recol- 
lected, however,  that  in  all  Spanish-American  countries — 
and  Mexico  has  been  no  exception — intimidation  and 


132 


MEXICO 


bribery  at  the  polls  and  breaches  of  constitutional  law  have 
been  potent  factors  in  election  matters.  It  would  not  be 
correct,  however,  to  ascribe  these  influences  to  the  latter 
terms  of  office  of  President  Diaz,  who,  there  can  be  little 
doubt,  has  enjoyed  the  confidence  of  his  fellow-citizens 
and  a majority  of  their  votes.1  His  enemies,  the  in- 
evitable enemies  of  a political  chief,  have  been  few  and 
silent ; and,  moreover,  in  these  years  of  Mexican  history 
sudden  and  silent  retribution  has  been  visited  upon  the 
least  whisper  or  suspicion  of  pronunciamientos , whether 
near  the  capital  or  whether  in  the  remote  towns  of  the 
great  plateau  ! 

A certain  main  and  important  condition  presented 
itself  to  the  comprehension  of  Diaz  early  in  his  adminis- 
tration, and  compliance  with  it  has  been  one  of  the  prin- 
cipal contributing  causes  to  his  success.  This  was  the 
necessity  for  the  bettering  of  the  means  of  communication 
of  the  country.  Roads,  railways,  and  telegraph  multiplied 
accordingly  under  the  fostering  work  of  the  Diaz  Govern- 
ments, mainly  by  inducements  held  out  to  foreign 
capitalists  ; partly  by  the  expenditure  of  national  funds. 
When  troops  and  messages  can  be  moved  and  flashed 
about  rapidly  pronunciamientos  tend  to  diminish.  The 
credit  of  the  country  abroad  was  firmly  re-established  in 
1886  by  a proper  adjustment  of  the  foreign  debt  with 
Mexico’s  European  creditors ; and  as  a result  further 
loans  were  secured.  The  Mexican  National  Railway, 
traversing  the  country  from  the  capital  to  the  United 
States  frontier,  was  opened  in  November,  1888,  as  well 
as  a line  southwards  to  Oaxaca,  later  ; and  thus  the 
nineteenth  century  closed  with  an  era  of  growing 
stability  and  prosperity  at  home  and  a creditable  reputa- 
tion abroad.  The  old  elements  of  unscrupulous  ambition 
had  been  outlived,  and  the  best  men  the  country  pro- 

1 The  character  of  President  Diaz  has  been  drawn  in  the  various  books 
recently  written  on  Mexico.  It  is  not  the  intention  of  this  work  to  indulge 
in  the  flattery  which  in  some  cases  has  been  given  to  him,  especially  in 
Mexican  books.  I had  the  pleasure  of  meeting  the  President  on  a brief 
occasion  some  years  ago.  Diaz  completes  the  80th  year  of  his  strenuous 
life  in  1910.  (See  also  page  165.I 


THE  PRESIDENT  OF  MEXICO,  GENERAL  PORFIRIO  DIAZ. 


[Tc>  face  f.  132. 


EVOLUTION  OF  MODERN  MEXICO  133 


duced  were  directing  its  governing  and  development. 
The  fiscal  policy  of  the  administration  had  been  wisely 
thought  out  and  applied,  and  had  proved  a success,  and 
difficulties  due  to  the  depreciation  of  the  silver  coinage 
had  been  weathered. 

The  twentieth  century  opened  for  Mexico  with  a continu- 
ance of  the  same  governing  elements,  policy,  and  general 
development,  Diaz  being  re-elected  for  the  term  beginning 
in  December,  1900,  and  again  for  the  term  1904-1910  : 
this  being  his  seventh  tenure  of  office.  Important  public 
works  have  been  carried  to  completion  during  these  last 
periods,  chief  among  them  being  the  drainage  of  the 
Valley  of  Mexico — that  historical  scheme  begun  by  the 
viceroys — and  the  harbour  works  of  VeraCruz;  rendering 
shipping  safe  from  the  great  “northers”  which  since  the 
time  of  Cortes  have  harassed  vessels  lying  in  the  bay. 
These  works  were  performed  by  British  firms  ; and  yet 
another,  under  similar  auspices,  was  the  completion  of 
the  Tehuantepec  Railway — a trans-Continental  line  from 
the  Atlantic  (Gulf)  to  the  Pacific  ; all  of  which  works 
are  of  really  historical  importance.  The  present  time — 
1909 — finds  Mexico  an  established  power  on  her  continent, 
with  considerable  opportunities  for  good  or  evil  in  the 
influence  of  international  matters  in  North  and  Central 
America,  and  with  her  own  future  well  mapped  out  in  so 
much  as  the  ingenuity  of  her  public  men  may  devise. 

What  this  future  will  really  be  must  depend  upon  the 
temper  of  her  people  and  the  prudence  of  political 
changes.  The  staunch  leader  who,  thanks  to  the  species 
of  limited  Presidential  Monarchy  which  circumstances 
have  required  and  permitted,  has  successfully  carried  on 
the  leadership  must,  in  the  natural  course  of  events,  yield 
this  up.  This  will  afford  an  opportunity  for  ambition 
and  possible  strife  on  the  part  of  those  elements  which 
have  been  overawed  in  the  past,  and  which  it  is  too 
much  to  expect  have  been  altogether  eliminated.  Then 
will  be  the  real  test  of  Mexican  self-control  and  prudence, 
and  it  seems  probable  that  these  will  be  exercised. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

physical  conditions:  mountains,  tablelands,  and 

FLORA  AND  FAUNA 


Geographical  conditions  — Tehuantepec  — Yucatan  — Boundaries  and 
area — Population — Vera  Cruz — Elevations  above  sea-level — Lati- 
tude — General  topography  — The  Great  Plateau  — The  Sierra 
Madres— The  Mexican  Andes — General  structure — The  coasts — 
Highest  peaks — Snow-cap  and  volcanoes — Geological  formation — 
Geological  scenery — Hydrographic  systems — Rivers — Navigation — 
Water-power — Lakes — Climate  and  temperatures — The  three  climatic 
zones — Rainfall — Snowfall — Flora  and  fauna — Soil — Singular  cactus 
forms — The  desert  flora — The  tropical  flora — Forest  regions — Wild 
animals — Serpents,  monkeys,  and  felidas — Sporting  conditions — 
Birds. 


We  have  traced  the  evolution  of  the  Mexican  people 
through  the  phases  of  their  chequered  history  : let  us 
now  examine  more  closely  their  habitat,  the  country  and 
its  physical  structure,  and  natural  clothing  ; its  mountains 
and  plains  and  accompanying  vegetation,  no  less  in- 
teresting and  picturesque  in  their  respective  fields. 

The  geographical  conditions  of  Mexico  and  its  geology 
and  accompanying  topography  are  peculiar,  and  indeed 
in  some  respects  unique.  Mexico  has  been  termed  “ the 
bridge  of  the  world’s  commerce,” 1 and,  in  fact,  its 
geographical  position  between  the  two  great  oceans  of 
the  world — the  Atlantic  and  the  Pacific,  and  between,  or 
joining,  two  great  continents,  North  and  South  America 
— would  seem  to  warrant  such  a description,  especially 
having  regard  to  the  coming  development  of  that  part 

1 Humboldt. 


PHYSICAL  CONDITIONS 


135 


of  the  world  and  the  rise  of  the  Pacific  Ocean  in  com- 
mercial importance.  It  is  indeed  a favourite  theory  of 
some  writers  that  the  commercial  and  civilised  centre  of 
the  world  is  destined  to  shift  from  the  Atlantic  to  the 
Pacific  Ocean.  This  theory,  which  must  be  charac- 
terised, however,  as  open  to  much  conjecture,  has  been 
lightly  discussed  elsewhere  in  these  pages.  But  be  it 
as  it  may,  the  situation  of  the  cornucopia-shaped  land  of 
Mexico  is  of  great  and  growing  importance.  Among  the 
geographical  features  of  almost  international  importance 
is  the  remarkable  isthmus  of  Tehuantepec — now  traversed 
by  a railway — which  separates  by  only  120  miles  the 
deep  waters  of  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Ocean  systems. 
It  is  an  isthmus  of  Panama  of  greater  width,  and 
certainly  may  form  a "bridge  of  commerce." 

Mexico — apart  from  the  Yucatan  peninsula — consists 
of  a great  triangular-shaped  area,  forming  the  tapering  end 
of  the  North  American  Continent.  It  is  bounded  on  the 
north  and  north-east  by  the  United  States;  on  the  east  by 
the  Atlantic  waters  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  Gulf  of  Cam- 
peche, and  Caribbean  Sea  ; on  the  west  and  south  by  the 
Pacific  Ocean  ; and  on  the  south-east  by  Guatemala  and 
British  Honduras.  Mexico  is,  therefore,  a close  neighbour 
of  a part  of  the  British  Empire  ! The  greatest  length 
of  the  country  is  2,000  miles  nearly,  its  greatest  width  760 
miles,  and  its  area  767,000  square  miles.  Thus  it  is  nearly 
nine  times  the  size  of  Great  Britain,  or  as  large  as 
Great  Britain,  France,  Germany,  and  Austria-Hungary 
all  joined  together  ; and  this  enormous  area  is  inhabited 
at  present  by  only  fourteen  or  fifteen  million  people. 

Although  Mexico  lies  half  within  and  half  without  the 
tropics,  it  is  generally  known  as  a tropical  country  ; and, 
indeed,  the  main  gateway  to  it,  Vera  Cruz,  is  a tropical 
seaport,  which  may  well  give  rise  to  such  a general  im- 
pression upon  the  part  of  the  European  traveller.  A 
different  impression,  however,  is  acquired  upon  entering 
the  country  from  the  United  States  to  the  north.  No  tropic 
forests  and  bright-plumaged  birds  are  encountered  there 
as  at  Vera  Cruz  ; instead  are  vast  stretches  of  desert  lying 


136 


MEXICO 


within  the  temperate  zone,  alternating  with  cultivated 
plains  and  interspersed  with  large  towns.  The  traveller, 
roused  by  the  shriek  of  the  locomotive,  looks  forth  into 
the  clear  dawn  of  the  chill  Mexican  morning  from  the 
window  of  his  sleeping-berth  upon  the  Pullman  car,  as 
the  train  speeds  over  the  plateau. 

No  fact  is  more  strongly  borne  upon  the  traveller  in 
Andine  and  Cordillera-formed  countries  than  that  latitude 
forms  but  an  unreliable  guide  to  climate  and  tempera- 
ture. Nearness  to  the  Equator,  with  its  accompanying 
torridity,  is  often  counterbalanced  by  high  elevations 
above  sea-level,  with  consequent  rarefied  air  and  low 
temperature — a combination  which  embodies  consider- 
able advantages,  as  well  as  some  drawbacks.  These 
conditions  are  very  marked  in  Mexico.  Entering  the 
country  from  Vera  Cruz,  we  rise  rapidly  from  sea-level  to 
7,410 feet  at  the  City  of  Mexico;  entering  from  the  United 
States,  we  rise  imperceptibly  from  4,000  feet  to  the  same 
elevation.  As  to  its  geographical  position,  the  country 
extends  over  180  of  latitude,  from  32^°  north  to  14J0 
north,  and  it  lies  between  the  86th  and  118th  meridian 
west  of  Greenwich. 

Topographically  the  country  offers  a very  varied 
surface,  the  main  features  of  which  are  the  Great  Plateau, 
the  extensive,  lofty  tableland  known  as  the  mesa  central ; 
and  the  Pacific  and  Atlantic  slopes,  formed  by  the  flanks 
of  the  Sierra  Madres  mountains  towards  these  oceans 
respectively.  At  the  base  of  these  ranges  are  the  lowlands 
of  the  coasts  ; whilst  the  eastern  extremity  of  the  country 
is  formed  by  the  singular  plains  of  the  peninsula  of 
Yucatan. 

A large  part  of  the  country’s  area  is  taken  up  by  this 
great  plateau  of  Anahuac,  as  it  is  sometimes  termed. 
The  tableland  is  bounded  both  on  the  east  and  the  west 
by  ranges  of  mountains,  known  as  the  Eastern  Sierra 
Madre  and  the  Western  Sierra  Madre  respectively.  These 
mountains  close  in  towards  the  south,  enclosing  the  table- 
land in  a tapering  form,  and  the  Valley  of  Mexico  which 
forms  its  extremity.  On  the  north  the  mesa  central  is 


MEXICO’S  ARTIFICIAL  HARBOURS:  THE  NEW  PORT  WORKS  AT  VERA  CRUZ,  A SOLID  AND  COSTLY 

ENTERPRISE, 

[To  face  j>.  13G, 


PHYSICAL  CONDITIONS 


137 


intersected  by  the  Rio  Grande,  which  forms  the  boundary 
of  Mexico  with  the  United  States ; and  the  plateau 
continues  thence  into  the  territory  of  that  country.  The 
length  of  this  plateau,  from  north-west  to  south-east,  or, 
roughly,  upon  its  longitudinal  axis,  is  approximately 
800  miles,  and  its  greatest  width  between  the  summits  of 
the  enclosing  mountains  about  500  miles.  The  tableland 
is,  however,  intersected  by  various  lesser  ranges  of  hills, 
and  is  not  by  any  means  a flat,  unbroken  expanse. 
Nevertheless,  its  formation  is  such  that  a vehicle  might 
be  driven  from  the  City  of  Mexico  for  vast  distances 
without  having  resort  to  roads.  It  may  be  looked  upon 
physically  as  a great  plane,  inclined  or  tipped  from 
south  to  north,  or  from  the  City  of  Mexico  to  the 
United  States  border.  The  general  elevation  above 
sea-level  of  the  inclined  plane  at  its  southern  end  is 
8,000  feet,  and  that  at  its  northern  4,000  feet — a slope 
of  4,000  feet  in  a direction  away  from  the  Equator  ; 
and  a fact  which  greatly  influences  its  climate. 
The  Mexican  plateau  is  the  result  of  after-formation 
from  the  mountain  system  of  the  country.  The  Sierra 
Madres  are  the  Mexican  Andes,  part  of  the  chain- 
formation  of  those  vast  Cordilleras  which  are  most 
developed  in  South  America,  on  the  one  hand,  and  are 
encountered  in  the  Rocky  Mountains  of  North  America 
on  the  other.  In  South  America  the  Andes  consist  of 
huge  parallel  chains  with  river  and  lake-basins  of 
profound  depth  between  them.  In  Mexico  the  same 
formation  must  have  existed,  but  the  basins  have  been 
filled  up  by  material  discharged  from  volcanoes  and  from 
the  erosion  of  the  mountains  themselves,  doubtless 
caused  by  the  severe  and  sudden  rain-storms  and  rapid 
changes  of  temperature  characteristic  of  these  regions. 
Thus  the  great  plateau  may  be  likened  to  a number 
of  filled-up  troughs,  through  whose  general  surface  the 
tops  of  mountain  ranges  still  protrude  in  “ islands  " or 
groups,  whose  crests  form  the  intersecting  hills  of  the 
plateau.  Some  of  the  plains  of  the  plateau  between 
these  crests  are  hydrographic  entities,  with  no  outlet  for 


138 


MEXICO 


their  waters,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Bolson  of  Mapimi — a 
vast  rock-wilderness  of  50,000  square  miles  in  area, 
with  great  swamps  and  lake  bottoms — and  the  Valley  of 
Mexico.  These  great  depressions,  indeed,  in  a measure 
bear  out  the  analogy  or  relationship  with  the  South 
American  Andes,  as  in  the  case  of  the  hydrographic 
entity  of  Lake  Titicaca  in  Peru  and  Bolivia,  the  great 
inland  sea  whose  waters  have  no  outlet  save  by  evapora- 
tion. The  enormous  depth  of  alluvial  soil  found  in  the 
bolsones  or  depressions  of  the  Mexican  plateau,  formed 
from  rock-decay,  or  of  volcanic  material  accumulated  by 
the  great  lakes  of  recent  times  which  covered  them  in 
the  central  part  of  the  great  mesa  central,  bear  striking 
evidence  to  the  filling-up  process  of  the  past.  In  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  River  Nazas  wells  have  been  sunk 
to  great  depths  in  this  material  without  a single  stone  or 
rock  of  any  description  being  encountered.  Indeed,  on 
some  of  the  cotton  lands  of  this  region  I have  looked  in 
vain  to  find  even  a pebble,  so  fine  is  the  alluvial  soil. 
The  stratified  rocks,  which  are  scarce  upon  the  southern 
part  of  the  plateau,  become  much  more  prevalent  in  the 
north,  and  the  vast  sandy,  arid  plains,  which  cover 
enormous  areas  of  land  in  Chihuahua  and  Coahuila 
extending  thence  past  the  valley  of  the  Rio  Grande  into 
the  great  American  deserts  of  Texas  and  New  Mexico, 
are  doubtless  formed  from  the  disintegration  of  the  sand- 
stone and  chalk  horizons  of  that  region. 

Leaving  for  a moment  our  examination  of  the  great 
plateau,  let  us  observe  the  coast.  On  both  sides  of  the 
country — the  Gulf  of  Mexico  or  the  Pacific  Ocean — we 
observe  that  the  littoral  is  composed  of  sandy  lowlands. 
On  the  eastern  or  Gulf  side  these  coastal  plains  vary  in 
width  from  a few  miles  up  to  a hundred  miles ; for  the 
Cordillera  approaches  near  to  the  sea  at  Vera  Cruz,  and 
recedes  far  from  it  in  Tamaulipas.  Upon  the  Pacific  side, 
however,  the  coastal  plains  are  more  restricted  in  width, 
as  the  Cordillera  runs  nearer  the  sea-coast,  but  leaving 
a wider  strip  at  the  north.  Indeed,  in  the  State  of 
Guerrero  the  Sierras  rise  almost  abruptly  from  salt  water, 


PHYSICAL  CONDITIONS 


139 


and  the  waves  bathe  the  roots  of  the  trees  which  cover 
the  mountain  slopes.  The  country  rises  rapidly  from 
both  oceans — more  rapidly  from  the  Pacific  side — and 
forms  a succession  of  terraces  upon  the  slopes  of  the 
Sierra  Madres,  traversed  by  profound  transversal  canons 
and  culminating  in  the  crests  of  these  mountains  which 
enclose  the  great  plateau  on  both  sides. 

The  Sierra  Madres,  or  Mexican  Andes,  have  the  general 
Andine  direction  of  north-north-west.  They  are  divided 
into  two  systems — the  western  and  the  eastern — whose 
respective  crests  in  the  north  are  from  400  to  500  miles 
apart,  enclosing  the  mesa  central,  and  which  approach 
towards  the  south.  The  Pacific  range  has  some  im- 
portant ramifications  from  its  main  system,  but  the 
general  Andine  structure  is  maintained.  The  range  is 
again  encountered  in  the  long  peninsula  of  North- 
Western  Mexico — known  as  Lower  California — where  it 
parallels  the  eastern  side  of  this  great  tongue  of  land  for 
more  than  700  miles.  Indeed,  a study  of  Mexico’s  oro- 
graphy and  the  delineation  upon  the  map  shows  the 
series  of  parallel  features  formed  by  alternate  mountain- 
folds  and  intervening  basins — the  peninsula  of  Lower 
California  ; the  Gulf  of  the  same  name  ; the  Western 
Sierra  Madre  ; the  intersecting  crests  of  the  great  plateau; 
the  Eastern  Sierra  Madre,  and  the  Gulf  Coast.  Thus 
these  huge  “ earth-wrinkles  ” of  the  Andine  system  of 
South  America  show  their  characteristics  in  Mexico, 
modified,  however,  by  cross-agencies  of  volcanic  nature. 
The  map  of  Mexico  shows  strikingly  how  the  country  is 
formed  upon  its  rocky  framework,  the  ribs  of  these  vast 
folds. 

The  passes  over  these  mountain  ranges,  giving  access 
to  the  plateau-interior  of  Mexico  from  the  oceans,  vary 
from  8,500  feet  to  10,000  feet,  the  range  upon  the  Pacific 
side  being  generally  the  higher.  But  the  highest 
peaks  rise  much  above  these  altitudes,  in  some  few 
cases  reaching  beyond  the  perpetual  snow-line, 
although  ever  much  lower  than  the  Andes  of  South 
America.  Three  culminating  peaks  only  pass  the  snow- 


140 


MEXICO 


line  in  Mexico,  although  others  of  the  crests  and  summits 
are  frequently  snow-covered.  The  first  of  these  three 
peaks  is  Orizaba,  or  Citalteptl — the  “ Star  Mountain  ” of 
the  native — the  beautiful  and  symmetrically  formed  cone 
whose  gleaming  snow-cap  is  seen  by  the  approaching 
traveller  far  over  the  stormy  waters  of  the  Gulf  as  he 
approaches  the  shores  of  Vera  Cruz.  So  Grijalva  and 
Cortes  saw  it ; so  the  voyager  of  to-day  sees  it,  as  its 
snowy  point  seems  to  hang  in  mid-sky,  its  base  buried 
in  clouds  and  its  gleaming  summit  surrounded  by  the 
azure  of  the  tropic  firmament.  The  summit  of  Orizaba 
is  18,250  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea — the  highest 
point  in  Mexico.  Next  in  point  of  altitude  is  the  famous 
Popocatepetl — the  “ Smoking  Mountain,"  so  called  by  the 
natives  for  its  eruptions  in  centuries  past,  for  it  is  no 
longer  active.  Some  of  the  adventurous  Spaniards  of 
the  band  of  Cortes  reached  the  rim  of  the  crater  on  its 
summit,  and,  indeed,  later  the  Spaniards  extracted  sul- 
phur therefrom,  and  various  ascents  have  been  made 
recently.  Its  last  eruption  was  in  1665.  The  summit  of 
Popocateptl  is  17,250  feet  above  sea-level,  and  it  is  of 
characteristic  conical  form.  The  third  perpetually  snow- 
capped peak  is  Ixtacihuatl — the  “ Sleeping  Woman,"  so 
named  by  the  natives  from  the  fanciful  suggestiveness  of 
a reclining  woman — and  its  summit  is  16,960  feet  above 
the  sea.  The  Indian  names  of  these  striking  monuments 
of  nature  serve  to  show  the  poetical  nomenclature  which 
the  natives  of  the  Americas  ever  gave  to  topographical 
features.  Especially  was  this  the  case  among  the  Aztecs 
of  Mexico  and  the  Incas  of  Peru.  The  last-named 
mountain  is  not  of  the  characteristic  conical  form  which 
volcanoes  generally  have,  its  outline — beautiful  as  it  is 
— forming  a serrated  edge,  and  it  appeared  singularly 
striking  from  Tacubaya,  where  I first  beheld  it.  Never- 
theless, all  these  three  mountains  — the  highest  points 
in  the  country — are  of  volcanic  origin.  The  majestic 
and  poetic  peaks  of  the  “ Smoking  Mountain  " and  the 
“ Sleeping  Woman  " form  part  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  or 
Cordillera  of  Anahuac,  in  company  with  Malinche, 


THE  STATE  OF  VERA  CRUZ  : THE  PEAK  OF  ORIZABA  ; PLAZA  OF  THE  CITY  OF  CORDOVA. 


PHYSICAL  CONDITIONS 


141 


another  of  the  highest  culminating  peaks,  14,630  feet 
above  sea-level.  This  chain  is  a cross  ridge  of  volcanic 
and  more  recent  formation  than  that  of  the  general 
system  of  the  Mexican  Cordilleras,  and  forms,  as  it 
were,  a line  of  volcanic  action  at  right  angles  to  the 
general  Andine  trend,  associated  perhaps  with  Orizaba 
on  the  east  and  the  volcano  of  Colima  (12,990  feet  ele- 
vation) on  the  west.  This  latter  mountain  is  the  only 
active  crater  in  Mexico  at  the  present  time.  The  great 
Malinche,  or  Malintzin — possibly  named  after  the  fair 
interpreter  of  Cortez — is  a mountain  of  striking  form, 
with  its  brow  often  snow-covered,  upon  the  borders  of 
the  plateau  of  Tlaxcala,  whilst  the  singular  Cofre  de 
Perote,  with  its  box  or  coffin-like  summit  (13,400  feet 
above  sea-level),  is  a prominent  landmark  of  the  eastern 
slope  of  Mexico’s  road  from  Vera  Cruz,  overhanging  the 
summit  of  the  Sierra  Madre  at  the  limit  of  the  lowlands. 
Other  high  peaks  are  the  Nevedo  de  Toluca,  often  snow- 
crowned,  14,950  feet  ; and  Tancitaro,  12,660  feet. 

The  Mexican  mountains  are  mainly  of  underlying 
granite  formation.  The  Jurassic,  Cretaceous,  and  Tertiary 
Ages  rocks  are  much  in  evidence  throughout  the  country, 
whilst  the  highest  ranges,  as  we  have  seen,  are  of  volcanic 
origin.  The  singular  plains  of  Yucatan  are  largely  of 
calcareous  formation,  probably  a Tertiary  limestone.  One 
of  the  most  plentiful  rocks  over  vast  areas  of  Mexico, 
and  that  which  forms  the  striking  variation  of  scenery, 
is  the  mountain  limestone,  the  excessively  hard  stratified 
crystalline  rock  of  the  Lower  Cretaceous  period.  This 
rock  formation  extends  right  across  Mexico — although 
isolated  in  places — from  sea  to  sea,  and  its  existence 
possibly  goes  to  show  that  the  Pacific  and  the  Gulf  were 
one,  in  earlier  geological  times.  The  predominating 
shades  of  these  extensive  strata  are  blue  and  grey ; 
occasionally  there  are  black  bands  alternating,  and  they 
lie  upheaved  at  such  angles  as  remind  the  traveller  of 
the  still  more  pronounced  strata  of  the  high  sum- 
mits of  the  Peruvian  Andes.1  The  mountain  limestone 
1 See  my  book,  “The  Andes  and  the  Amazon.” 


142 


MEXICO 


is  of  very  hard  texture  ; white  and  crystalline,  it  wears 
away  but  slowly  under  the  action  of  the  elements, 
although  on  the  steep  mountain  tracks  over  which  we 
are  journeying  we  shall  observe  it  broken  into  cubes 
like  sugar,  beneath  the  incessant  trampling  of  hoofs,  or 
worn  away  to  silver-sand  and  borne  down  by  the  stream- 
lets into  the  river  valleys. 

The  rock-formations  of  the  tablelands  are  those  to 
which  Mexico  owes  her  fame  as  a silver-producing 
country,  and  it  is  in  the  high  region,  from  5,000  to  9,500 
feet  above  sea-level,  that  her  historical  mines  are  encoun- 
tered; and  the  zone  of  territory  embraced  by  these  well- 
known  centres,  from  Pachuca  to  Guanajuato  and  onwards 
to  Chihuahua,  may  be  described  without  exaggeration  as 
the  richest  argentiferous  region  on  the  surface  of  the 
globe.  It  is  to  the  metamorphic  formation  that  the  abund- 
ance of  mineral  ores  is  due,  and  the  igneous  rocks 
which  have  given  rise  thereto — the  granites,  basalts, 
diorites,  porphyries,  and  others.  This  metalliferous  zone 
is  more  than  1,500  miles  long,  extending  from  the  State 
of  Chihuahua  and  Sonora  in  the  north  to  Oaxaca  and 
Chiapas  in  the  south. 

As  we  cross  the  coast-zone  from  Vera  Cruz  we  are 
enabled  to  observe  something  of  the  orographical  struc- 
ture of  the  country  and  the  agencies  that  have  been  at 
work.  The  coastal  plains  are  sedimentaries  of  Tertiary 
formation.  The  medanos,  or  sand-dunes,  of  the  coast, 
blown  into  singular  forms  by  the  prevailing  norte  from 
the  Gulf,  give  place,  as  we  proceed  inland,  to  the  foothills 
of  the  Eastern  Sierra.  Here  the  Cretaceous  formation  is 
shown — the  hard  crystalline  limestone — and  this,  from 
its  durable  nature,  has  furnished  material  for  the  new 
breakwater  at  Vera  Cruz.  Again,  as  we  proceed,  the 
lower  rocks  are  sheeted  with  the  lava  of  former  erup- 
tions of  volcanoes,  worn  away  at  times  by  the  ravines, 
and  showing  the  points  of  Cretaceous  rocks  protruding  ; 
and  volcanic  dust  from  the  same  source  drifts  hither  and 
thither,  and  at  times  has  been  compressed  by  the  ele- 
ments into  a soft  tufa.  The  great  sheets  of  lava,  as  in 


PHYSICAL  CONDITIONS 


143 


certain  places  in  the  Valley  of  Mexico,  are  of  remarkable 
appearance  on  the  face  of  the  country,  the  scorified  aspect 
seemingly  little  changed  since  the  moment  when  the  fiery 
sheet  must  have  poured  devastatingly  down  the  country- 
side. 

The  rock-formation  of  Mexican  landscape  gives  rise  to 
exceedingly  picturesque  and  romantic  scenery  in  places, 
and  to  diverse  configurations  of  striking  beauty,  among 
which  we  shall  often  draw  rein  as  we  journey,  or  which 
will  attract  us  continually  to  the  observation-point  of  our 
Pullman  car  as  the  train  winds  along.  Upon  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico  or  the  Pacific  slopes  the  territory  is  grand 
and  broken  in  the  extreme,  and  presents  curious  and 
beautiful  examples  of  rock-scenery.  The  natural  mono- 
liths of  the  barrancas  of  the  State  of  Hidalgo  are  strange 
examples  of  scenic  geology;  monumental  caprice  of  Nature 
in  megalithic  structure,  as  shown  by  the  remarkable  basalt 
columns  of  the  profound  Gorge  of  Itzala.  Vari-coloured 
lichens  cover  these  basalt  pillars,  affording  singular  con- 
trast of  light  and  shade.  Through  the  gorge  a torrential 
stream  flows,  and  the  floor  of  the  valley  is  covered  with 
fragments  of  obsidian,  or  volcanic  glass,  gleaming  black 
and  brilliant,  which  has  been  brought  down  by  the  waters 
from  the  Cerro  de  Navajas.  This  obsidian,  or  Itzli,  was 
the  material  from  which  the  Aztecs  made  their  knives 
and  weapons,  and  this  was  their  prehistoric  quarry. 
The  red  lava  deserts  of  Sonora  are  weird  and  remarkable. 

Mexico  is  divided  hydrographically  into  three  systems : 
the  Atlantic,  or  Gulf  of  Mexico  watershed  ; that  of  the 
Pacific  ; and  the  hydrographic  entities  of  the  great  plateau. 
In  the  first  of  these  is  the  vast  region  of  the  northern 
part  of  Mexico,  which,  with  Texas  and  New  Mexico, 
drains  into  the  Rio  Grande  and  thence  into  the  Gulf ; 
the  long  littoral  of  the  Gulf  Coast,  whose  divortia 
aquarum,  or  water-parting,  is  formed  by  the  Eastern 
Sierra  Madre  ; and  the  peninsula  of  Yucatan.  In  the 
second  is  the  vast  stretch  of  the  Pacific  slope,  whose 
divortia  aquarum  is  the  Western  Sierra  Madre  ; the 
peninsula  of  Lower  California  ; and  the  southern  side  of 


144 


MEXICO 


the  region  south  of  the  Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec.  In 
the  third  are  the  intra-montane  portions  of  the  great 
plateau,  whose  waters  have  no  outlet  or  natural  source 
of  exhaustion  except  that  by  evaporation,  such  as  the 
great  plains  known  as  the  Bolson  of  Mapimi ; and  the 
Valley  of  Mexico.  Topographically,  however — apart 
from  the  three  climatic  zones  of  hot,  temperate,  and 
cold  lands — the  country  is  divided  orographically  into 
two  portions  by  the  Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec,  the  former 
consisting  of  the  characteristic  mountain-chains  and 
great  plateau,  and  the  latter  of  the  immense  plains  of 
Yucatan,  with  a low  elevation  of  not  more  than  300 
feet  above  sea-level. 

The  formation  of  Mexico  has  not  given  rise  to  the 
existence  of  great  or  navigable  rivers  nor,  indeed,  of 
harbours.  With  few  exceptions  rivers  are  torrential  in 
character,  although  some  are  of  considerable  length. 
The  Rio  Grande,  which  forms  the  northern  boundary 
of  the  United  States,  and  is  therefore  international  in 
character,  is  1,500  miles  in  length ; rising  in  Colorado 
and  passing  through  New  Mexico  in  the  United  States, 
and  thence  entering  between  Texas  and  Chihuahua,  it 
is  joined  by  two  large  tributaries — the  Pecos  on  the 
American  and  the  Conchos  river  on  the  Mexican  side. 
Thence  it  flows  south-eastwardly  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 
The  waters  which  enter  Mexican  territory  are  scarce,  as 
they  have  been  taken  out  for  irrigation  purposes  in 
American  territory.  The  Lerma,  or  Santiago,  river  is 
the  next  in  point  of  length,  and  is  a stream  of  consider- 
able importance,  dividing  the  main  portion  of  Mexico 
topographically  into  two  subdivisions.  It  flows  for  540 
miles  from  its  source  in  the  mountains  near  Toluca, 
passing  through  the  beautiful  Lake  Chapala — the  largest 
in  Mexico — and  forms  the  great  cascade  of  Juanacatlan, 
the  Niagara  of  Mexico  ; traverses  the  State  of  Jalisco, 
where  it  is  joined  by  numerous  affluents,  and  discharges 
into  the  Pacific  Ocean  near  San  Bias. 

Southwardly  from  the  above,  beyond  the  intervening 
Cordillera,  is  the  River  Balsas,  or  Mescala,  430  miles  in 


FALLS  OF  JUANACATLAN  : THE  NIAGARA  OF  MEXICO. 


PHYSICAL  CONDITIONS 


145 


length.  This  important  stream  has  its  rise  in  the  water- 
shed of  the  central  plateau,  or  rather  the  extensive  slopes 
of  the  Valley  of  Mexico,  and  running  with  a general 
westerly  direction  between  the  Sierras,  empties  into  the 
Pacific  at  Zacatula.  It  is  navigable  for  a short  distance. 
The  Yaqui,  discharging  into  Pacific  waters,  is  390 
miles  long,  flowing  through  the  Sierras  of  Sonora  to  the 
Gulf  of  California.  On  the  littoral  of  the  Mexican  Gulf 
is  the  Panuco,  which  rises  to  the  north  of  the  Valley  of 
Mexico,  flowing  thence  in  a great  curve  ; and  being  joined 
by  various  affluents  from  the  eastern  watershed  of  the 
Sierra  Madres,  it  discharges  at  the  port  of  Tampico. 
The  Papaloapam,  also  draining  part  of  the  State  of 
Vera  Cruz,  empties  into  the  Gulf  near  the  port  of  the 
same  name.  From  the  region  of  the  peninsula  of  Yucatan 
flow  two  main  streams — the  Usamacinta  and  the  Grijalva — 
which  are  partly  navigable.  All  these  rivers  are  further 
described  in  the  chapter  treating  of  the  various  States  to 
which  they  correspond.  Another  characteristic  stream 
of  Mexico  is  the  River  Nazas,  whose  waters,  nearly  all 
absorbed  by  the  irrigation  canals  of  the  Laguna  region, 
where  the  famous  cotton  plantations  are,  fall  in  times  of 
flood  into  the  Lagoon  of  Parras,  where  they  evaporate, 
the  system  forming  a hydrographic  entity,  without  outlet 
either  to  the  Pacific  or  Atlantic  watershed.  Thus  it  is 
seen  that  most  Mexican  rivers  simply  rise  in  and 
descend  on  one  or  the  other  slopes  of  the  country  ; and  as 
the  fall  is  rapid  their  courses  are  interrupted  by  numerous 
cascades.  Except  in  few  cases,  these  rivers  are  of  no 
service  for  navigation,  but  the  elements  of  water-power 
and  irrigation  facilities  which  they  possess  are  more  than 
compensating  circumstances.  In  addition,  their  scenic 
value  is  very  marked  in  many  cases. 

Lakes  of  Andine  character,  and  others,  exist  throughout 
Mexico,  the  remnants  of  much  larger  lake  systems,  which 
occupied  the  filled-up  “ troughs”  of  the  mountains, 
before  described.  Some  of  these  sheets  of  water  are 
exceedingly  beautiful  in  their  disposition  and  environ- 
ment. Foremost  among  them  is  Chapala,  in  the  State  of 

11 


146 


MEXICO 


Jalisco,  near  the  handsome  city  of  Guadalajara  ; and 
equally  picturesque  those  smaller  sheets  of  water  in 
Michoacan — Lakes Cuitzeo and  Patzcuaro.  Theremarkable 
groups  of  lakes  in  the  Valley  of  Mexico,  around  which  the 
Aztec  civilisation  flourished,  comprise  six  salt-water  and 
one  (that  of  Chaleo)  fresh-water  lake.  The  two  maps 
given  in  these  pages,  of  the  disposition  of  these  lakes  at  the 
time  of  the  Conquest 1 and  at  the  present  day,  respectively, 
show  how  remarkably  their  waters  have  shrunk  during 
the  intervening  centuries.  Indeed,  this  may  have  fol- 
lowed a certain  drying-up  process  which  seems  to  have 
been  going  on  throughout  the  whole  Andine  region  of 
the  Americas,  and  which  is  evidenced  by  retiring  snow- 
caps  in  Peru,  and  the  receding  of  Lake  Titicaca. 

The  climate  and  temperature  of  Mexico  follow  certain 
marked  zones,  depending  upon  elevation,  as  already 
indicated  in  the  opening  chapter.  Both  on  the  Atlantic 
and  Pacific  slopes  these  zones  are  encountered — the 
tierra  caliente  up  to  3,000  feet  elevation  above  sea-level ; 
the  tierra  templada  to  5,000  or  6,000  ; and  the  tierra  fria 
above  that  altitude.  On  the  tropical  lowlands  the  heat  of 
the  torrid  zone  is  experienced,  but  is  not  necessarily 
oppressive,  although  the  European  or  American  traveller 
who  prefers  a less  enervating  climate  hastens  to  exchange 
that  region  for  the  more  bracing  air  of  the  uplands.  The 
night  breezes,  however,  compensate  largely  for  the  heat 
of  the  sun,  and  render  bearable,  and  indeed  agreeable,  the 
Vera  Cruz  littoral  and  the  Yucatan  peninsula,  by  the 
lowered  temperature  they  afford.  The  rains  also,  which 
have  their  season  from  June  to  November,  do  much  to 
refresh  the  atmosphere.  Indeed,  the  year  is  divided 
mainly  by  the  matter  of  rainfall  into  a wet  and  dry 
period,  the  summer  and  winter  of  other  countries  being 
unknown  ; or,  rather,  one  might  say,  that  the  daytime  is 
the  summer  and  the  night-time  the  winter,  so  marked  are 
the  diurnal  changes  of  temperature. 

In  the  tierra  caliente  the  mean  temperature  varies  from 
770  to  8o°  F.,  but  often  rises  to  ioo°,  and  in  some  of  the 
1 See  page  76. 


the  pacific  coast  zone  : GENERAL  view  of  the  city  and  ENVIRONS  OF  COLIMA. 


PHYSICAL  CONDITIONS 


147 


hottest  coast  regions  to  1050  F.  In  the  tierra  templada  the 
mean  is  from  62°  to  700  F.,  and  this  is  the  climatic  region 
which  the  Mexicans  love  to  term  “perpetual  spring.”  In 
point  of  fact,  it  is  a zone  not  unworthy  of  the  designation, 
being  equable,  healthy,  and  with  a beautiful  and  varied  flora. 
It  is  to  be  recollected  that  the  greater  part  of  the  area  of 
the  country  lies  in  this  temperate  zone,  although  there  is 
included  in  it  a part  of  the  great  plateau,  with  its  great 
range  of  heat  and  cold  from  day  to  night.  It  is,  however, 
with  reference  to  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  slopes  that 
these  changes  are  ascribed,  and  this  fine  and  enjoyable 
climate  is  encountered  from  Ameca  in  Jalisco  to  Chil- 
pancingo  in  Guerrero  on  the  western  side  ; and  from 
Jalapa  northwards  upon  the  Gulf — vast  belts  of  territory 
of  which  any  country  might  well  be  proud.  Upwards 
from  this  zone  is  that  of  the  tierra  fria,  with  a mean 
temperature  of  590  or  6o°  F.,  which  varies  little  throughout 
the  year,  although  the  maximum  and  minimum  from  day 
to  night  is  very  marked. 

As  regards  the  climate  of  Mexico  generally,  it  might 
have  been  supposed  that  it  would  be  oppressively  hot, 
the  country  lying,  as  it  does,  towards  the  Equator.  But 
this  is  far  from  being  the  case;  and  the  New  Yorker  may 
well  leave  the  stifling  heat  of  his  own  city  in  summer  for 
the  tonic  breezes  of  the  Mexican  uplands,  just  as  he  may 
winter  there  to  avoid  the  bitter  winter  of  New  York. 
And,  as  to  the  European,  we  may  recollect  that  the 
southernmost  point  of  Mexico  is  two  degrees  nearer  the 
Equator  than  the  southernmost  point  of  Europe,  whilst 
the  mean  annual  temperature  of  the  City  of  Mexico — 
6i°  34 — bears  excellent  comparison  with  such  places  as 
Algiers,  63°;  Barcelona,  6i°;  Naples,  6i° ; Rome,  6o° ; 
Bordeaux,  570  F.  The  diurnal  change  in  the  City  of 
Mexico,  however,  is  very  marked,  rising  to  89°  F.  during 
the  day  and  falling  to  350  F.  at  night,  when  the  foreigner 
gladly  dons  his  overcoat  and  the  native  his  capa,  or  serape. 
On  the  whole,  it  is  natural  to  describe  the  climate  of 
Mexico  as  pleasing  and  invigorating,  whilst  bearing  in 
mind  the  variation  above  described,  due  to  elevation, 


148 


MEXICO 


latitude,  rainfall,  and  wind  agencies.  The  effects  of  these 
changes  are  so  marked  upon  the  vegetation  of  the  country 
that  all  the  vegetable  products  from  the  Equator  to  the 
Polar  Circle  can  be  found  among  them. 

The  rainfall  throughout  the  country  is  mainly  confined 
to  the  rainy  season,  from  May  or  June  to  October  or 
November.  During  the  middle  of  this  season  the  rains 
are,  at  times,  exceedingly  heavy,  the  dry  stream  beds  of 
the  plateau  filling  up  in  a few  hours  with  a torrential 
flood  which  sweeps  everything  before  it.  The  desert 
plains  in  some  places  are  traversed  by  deep  barrancas,  or 
gullies,  worn  down  perpendicularly  through  the  soil ; and 
woebetide  the  unlucky  horseman  who  may  be  journeying 
along  the  bottom  of  one  of  these  when  the  wave  of  water 
comes  down  from  some  sudden  cloud-burst  in  the 
mountains,  which  happens  not  infrequently.  Incautious 
Indians  and  peones,  also,  who  have  taken  up  their  lodging 
in  some  cave  or  dug-out  of  the  banks  of  the  torrential 
rivers  of  the  plateau,  or  who  have  laid  drunk  upon  the 
sun-baked  river-bed,  are  often  surprised  by  the  waters,  and 
their  bodies  are  recovered  miles  away,  stranded  upon 
some  sand-bar.  This  serves  as  giving  an  idea  of  the 
sudden  and  rapid  flow  of  water  from  the  mountains 
under  the  torrential  rains ; and  a good  example  of  a river 
subject  to  such  a regimen  is  that  of  the  Nazas.  I have 
crossed  the  dry  bed  of  this  river  at  Torreon  on  various 
occasions  on  horseback,  but  on  the  return  journey  an 
hour  afterwards  the  horse  was  swimming,  or,  when  the 
current  was  too  fierce,  it  was  necessary  to  make  a long 
detour  to  the  bridge,  for  the  torrent  was  raging  300  feet 
wide  from  bank  to  bank. 

The  average  rainfall  varies  greatly  for  different  parts  of 
the  country.  For  example,  in  the  City  of  Mexico  a year’s 
mean  fall  may  be  25  inches,  whilst  in  Monterrey,  some 
500  miles  to  the  north,  it  would  reach  130  inches.  In  the 
dry  season,  however,  no  rain  falls  in  any  of  the  three 
zones  of  hot,  temperate,  or  cold  lands.  Snowfall  is  very 
rare  as  far  south  as  the  City  of  Mexico,  but  is  not 
unknown.  In  the  cities  of  the  great  plateau,  to  the  north, 


RARE  OCCURRENCE  : SNOWFALL  IN  A MEXICAN  TOWN  ; VIEW  OK  THE  PLAZA  OP  LERDO,  ON  THE  GREAT 

PLATEAU. 

[To  face  p.  149- 


PHYSICAL  CONDITIONS 


149 


it  is  almost  equally  rare,  occurring  perhaps  once  or  twice 
in  a lifetime.  When  such  does  take  place  it  affords  an 
unwonted  spectacle  for  the  peones,  and  causes  them  to 
wrap  themselves  in  their  serapes  and  muffle  up  their 
mouths  as  if  they  were  in  the  polar  regions,  rather  than 
experiencing  a momentary  fall  of  temperature  ! A scene 
of  this  nature  occurred  during  my  stay  in  Lerdo,  one  of 
the  towns  of  this  region,  and  is  well  depicted  in  the 
accompanying  view.  The  low  rainfall  of  the  extreme 
north  of  Mexico,  of  two  to  three  inches,  on  the  border  of 
Arizona,  and  the  excessive  fall,  reaching  156  inches,  on  the 
Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec,  with  the  high  rate  for  Monterrey 
and  the  moderate  fall  for  the  capital,  show  how  remarkable 
are  the  hygrometric  conditions  due  to  topography.  The 
maximum  rainfall  is  only  exceeded  in  very  few  regions  of 
the  globe. 

If  the  geology  and  topography  of  Mexico  are  marked 
and  peculiar,  the  organic  world  also  presents  its  own 
remarkable  conditions  ; for,  as  to  its  flora  and  fauna, 
Mexico  is  a land  of  transition,  between  North  America 
on  the  one  hand  and  Central  and  South  America  on  the 
other,  and  contains  the  species  of  both  regions,  in  the 
animal  and  vegetable  kingdoms. 

As  may  well  be  imagined  from  such  peculiar  conditions, 
Mexico  is  a country  whose  flora  and  fauna  are  diverse  and 
extensive.  Indeed,  as  regards  the  former,  every  vegetable 
product  found  from  the  Equator  to  the  Polar  Circle  exist 
in  the  country.  The  soil,  in  the  tropical  regions,  as  a 
result  of  high  temperature  and  excessive  moisture,  is  deep 
and  fertile,  both  from  the  rock-decay  consequent  upon 
such  conditions,  and  the  deposit  of  organic  matter  from 
the  profuse  vegetation.  In  the  region  of  the  high  plateau 
the  product  of  rock-disintegration  added  to  that  caused 
by  volcanic  matter,  and  the  sediment  of  dried-up  lagoons 
of  very  recent  time,  have  produced  a great  depth  of  soil 
in  places,  as  before  described,  covering  vast  expanses,  and 
this  soil  is  found  to  be  of  exceeding  fertility  under 
irrigation.  The  conditions  regarding  irrigation  are  very 
marked  in  the  region  of  the  Nazas.  On  the  one  hand  we 


150 


MEXICO 


encounter  dry,  bare,  and  uncultivated  wastes ; on  the 
other  verdant  fields  of  cotton.  Why  is  this  ? Both  the 
lands  are  of  a similar  character  of  soil,  but  one  is  above 
the  line  of  the  irrigation  canal,  and  the  other  below. 

No  description  of  Mexico  can  be  complete  which  does 
not  sound  the  praises  of  her  varied  flora.  The  most 
striking  characteristic  of  the  flowers  of  this  land,  as  has 
often  been  remarked,  is  the  richness  and  brilliance  of 
their  colour.  The  floating  gardens,  and  the  canoe-loads 
of  flowers  and  altar  adornments  of  such  which  the 
Aztecs  used  and  trafficked  in,  bore  witness  to  aboriginal 
appreciation  of  these.  To-day  the  flower-market  of  the 
capital  is  one  of  its  attractions,  whilst  in  the  valley  of 
Mexico  not  a day  in  the  year  lacks  roses,  lilies,  camellias, 
strawberries,  et  hoc  genus  omne. 

A varied  and  indeed,  at  times,  eccentric  field  of  study 
is  laid  open  for  the  botanist  in  Mexico,  for  not  only  is 
there  a remarkable  variety  of  species,  but  their  distribution 
is  often  singular.  Thus  the  pine-tree  is  often  found  at  low 
elevations  upon  the  tropic  slopes,  much  below  its  proper 
habitat  upon  the  mountain  ranges ; whilst  palms  flourish 
in  certain  places  as  high  as  8,000  feet  above  sea-level ; 
and  the  extraordinary  cactus  forms,  which  in  Mexico 
are  found  in  their  greatest  development,  grow  both  on 
the  high  mountain  slopes  and  the  tropic  lowland  plains. 
Especially  will  the  traveller  in  Mexico  be  struck  by  the 
imposing  organo  cactus.  This  extraordinary  growth,  in 
form  like  a series  of  organ  pipes,  from  which  it  takes  its 
name,  or  like  a huge  branching  candelabra,  arising  from  a 
single  stem,  is  a marked  feature  of  the  landscape.  A few 
strokes  of  a machete,  severing  the  stem  of  one  of  these 
great  succulent  plants,  will  bring  down  the  whole  structure, 
weighing  many  tons.  The  cactus,  especially  upon  the 
high,  arid  deserts  of  the  plateau,  is  a striking  example  of 
a plant  contending  with  the  conditions  of  its  environ- 
ment in  the  struggle  for  life.  Cacti  are  veritable  cisterns 
of  water,  stored  up  against  long  periods  of  absolute 
drought,  so  that  they  may  be  able  to  perform  their 
function  of  flowering.  The  organo  and  other  cacti  consist 


ROAD  IN  THE  TEMPERATE  ZONE,  WITH  PALMS  AND  VEGETATION. 


PHYSICAL  CONDITIONS 


151 


of  great  masses  of  juicy  green  cells ; and  to  protect  the 
scarce  commodity  of  water  which  they  have  collected  for 
their  own  use  from  predatory  desert  beasts  and  birds, 
Nature  has  armed  them  at  every  point  with  an  appalling 
armour  of  thorns,  or  spikes,  sharp  as  steel,  and  due  to 
these  matters  of  offence  and  defence  the  cactus  is  enabled 
to  flourish  in  sterile  places  where  absolutely  no  other 
vegetation  could  exist.  Nowhere  are  these  conditions  so 
marked  as  upon  the  upper  reaches  of  the  high  plateau  of 
Mexico,  and  the  variety  of  the  cacti  is  most  interesting. 
Among  the  cactus  species  are  some  which  are  of  value — 
great  value — to  the  human  inhabitants.  Chief  of  these  is 
the  maguey  ( Agave  americana),  which  is  indeed  one  of  the 
staple  resources  of  the  country,  with  a varied  use,  as  de- 
scribed in  the  pages  dealing  with  agriculture.  The  nopat, 
or  prickly-pear,  is  a useful  plant,  yielding  a succulent  fruit 
— the  tunas — and  is  also  the  habitat  of  the  cochineal. 

The  tropical  region — the  tierra  caliente — is  generally 
covered,  as  before  described,  with  a profuse  floral  and 
arboreal  vegetation,  whilst  the  other  climatic  belts  display 
their  own  peculiar  plant  and  tree  life.  Throughout  the 
country  generally,  a large  number  of  species  of  timber  and 
plants  exist  in  an  uncultivated  state,  of  commercial  value, 
and  these  are  enumerated  in  the  chapter  corresponding  to 
the  natural  products.  Among  the  115  or  more  species 
of  timber  and  wood  for  constructional  purposes  are  oak, 
pine,  mahogany,  cedar,  and  others,  whilst  the  list  of 
fibrous  and  medicinal  plants,  gum-bearing  trees,  as  india- 
rubber,  chicle,  & c.,  tinctorial  and  resinous  trees,  edible 
plants  and  fruits,  is  of  much  interest  and  value.  In  the 
tropical  lowlands  the  country  is  so  thickly  wooded  as  in 
places  to  be  impassable,  except  by  clearing  trails  and  felling 
trees.  There  are  virgin  forests  of  great  extent  in  these 
sparsely  populated  regions,  both  of  the  Pacific  and 
Atlantic  slopes.  Upon  the  great  plateau,  however,  and 
the  mountain  slopes  immediately  adjoining  it  conditions 
are  very  different.  Great  tracts  of  country  are,  as  else- 
where described,  absolutely  bare  of  vegetation,  both 
naturally  and  by  reason  of  the  inroads  made  upon  the 


152 


MEXICO 


forests  by  civilised  man.  The  great  desert  tracts  never 
had  tree  or  plant  life  in  profusion,  but  the  hilly  regions 
bounding  these,  and  the  inward  slopes  of  the  Sierra  Madres 
were  formerly  covered  with  thick  forests,  and  in  some 
regions  are  still  so  covered.  But  they  have  been  denuded 
in  certain  regions  of  their  timber,  principally  for  fuel, 
as  native  coal  has  been  unknown  until  recently,  and  is 
difficult  of  transport.  This  denudation  has  had  an  un- 
doubted effect  upon  the  rainfall, 'and  has  served  to  change 
the  climatic  conditions  in  these  regions.  In  other  upland 
regions,  however,  the  splendid  and  extensive  forests  of 
oak  and  pine  form  marked  features  of  the  landscape,  and 
are  of  much  industrial  value. 

The  diversity  of  climatic  and  botanical  conditions  of 
Mexico  gives  as  a natural  corollary  a variety  of  animal 
life,  and  the  fauna  is  an  extensive  one,  including,  with 
small  exception,  all  the  species  of  North  America  on  the 
one  hand,  and  of  South  America  on  the  other.  Those  of 
the  former,  naturally,  are  found  upon  the  great  plateau  ; 
those  of  the  latter  in  the  tropical  lowlands.  Among 
the  main  exceptions  are  the  llama  and  alpaca,  the 
domestic  wool-bearing  animals  of  the  camel  family,  and 
kindred  varieties,  which  do  not  exist  in  Mexico,  nor  are 
found  anywhere  in  the  world  outside  the  highlands  of 
Peru  and  Bolivia.  Indeed,  native  Mexico,  before  the 
introduction  of  the  equine  race  from  Europe,  had  no 
beast  of  burden  whatever,  such  as  the  llama  afforded  to 
the  South  American  aboriginal  peoples. 

The  fauna  of  the  country  embraces  fifty-two  varieties  of 
mammal  quadrupeds,  including  three  species  of  large 
felidae — the  jaguar,  the  puma,  or  cougar,  and  the  ocelot,  a 
carnivorous  cat-like  animal,  whose  name  is  derived  from 
the  native  Mexican  word  ocelotl.  There  are  five  varieties 
of  monkeys  in  the  tropical  forests,  as  well  as  a sloth. 
There  are  forty-three  classes  of  reptiles,  including  alligators 
and  turtles,  and  several  kinds  of  venomous  serpents,  and 
the  great  boa-constrictor.  Upon  the  plateau  and  mountain 
ranges  wolves  and  wild-cats  abound,  and  the  coyote  is  the 
wild  inhabitant  of  the  desert  plains  most  in  evidence. 


VEGETATION  IX  THE  TROPICAL  FORESTS. 


[To  face  p.  153. 


PHYSICAL  CONDITIONS 


153 


There  are  several  kinds  of  bears,  and  the  wolf,  skunk, 
bison,  and  tapir  are  found. 

Mexico  cannot  be  said  to  offer  a field  for  hunters  of 
big  game,  and  the  term  “ a sportsman’s  paradise,”  which 
is  sometimes  applied  to  it,  is  something  of  an  exaggeration. 
Nevertheless,  there  is  considerable  sport  to  be  had,  and 
certain  kinds  of  game  abound.  Among  animals  may  be 
enumerated  the  peccaries,  or  javilines,  deer,  rabbits,  hares  ; 
of  reptiles,  alligators,  turtles,  and  iguanas  ; whilst  whales, 
seals,  and  sea-lions  are  encountered  upon  the  Pacific 
coast.  Alligators  are  numerous  in  the  estuaries  of  the 
rivers  of  both  the  Gulf  and  the  Pacific  sides,  as  well  as 
turtles  and  tortoises.  Of  birds  for  the  sportsman  may  be 
mentioned  the  wild  turkey — which,  indeed,  was  intro- 
duced to  Europe  from  Mexico — partridges,  quail,  and 
wild  pigeons.  The  armadillo,  beaver,  martin,  otter,  and 
others  are  among  the  Mexican  fauna.  Of  noxious  reptiles 
and  insects  the  rattlesnake  is  much  in  evidence,  as  well  as 
the  tarantula,  centipede,  alacran,  or  scorpion,  and  varie- 
ties of  ants.  Of  birds  of  beautiful  plumage  the  Mexican 
tropics  abound  with  life,  and  they  are  famed  for  their 
fine  feathers,  and  as  songsters.  They  are  an  example 
of  Nature's  compensating  circumstances  ; for  in  the  hot 
lowlands  they  are  more  distinguished  for  their  bright 
plumage  than  their  voice  ; whilst  in  the  uplands  they  are 
of  much  more  modest  dress,  but  higher  singing  capacities. 
More  than  350  species  of  birds  have  been  enumerated 
throughout  the  country,  and  among  these  are  fifty  varieties 
of  humming-birds,  which  range  throughout  the  whole 
colour-scale,  from  blue  and  green  to  scarlet.  The  zen- 
zontle,  or  mocking-bird,  is  a well-known  bird  in  Mexico. 

Such  are,  in  brief,  the  natural  conditions  of  geological 
structure,  climatic  conditions,  and  the  organic  world  con- 
sequent thereon,  of  this  varied  and  interesting  land  ; and 
having  thus  observed  them  we  must  turn  our  attention  to 
the  human  family  whose  habitat  they  form — the  men  and 
women  of  Mexico  of  to-day. 


CHAPTER  IX 


THE  MEXICAN  PEOPLE 


Ethnic  conditions — Spanish,  Mestizos,  Indians — Colour-line — Foreign 
element  — The  pcones — Land  tenure  — The  Spanish  people  — The 
native  tribes  — The  Apaches  — The  Mexican  constitution  — Class 
distinctions  — Mexican  upper  class  — Courtesy  and  hospitality  — 
Quixotism  of  the  Mexicans — Idealism  and  eloquence — General 
characteristics — Ideas  of  progress — American  anomalies — Hacien- 
das— Sport — Military  distinctions — Comparison  with  Anglo-Saxons — 
Republicanism — Language — Life  in  the  cities — Warlike  instincts — 
The  women  of  Mexico — Mexican  youths — Religious  observance — 
Romantic  Mexican  damsels — The  bull-fights. 


The  Mexican  people  are  divided  for  sociological  or 
ethnological  purposes  into  three  divisions — the  people 
of  purely  white  European  or  Spanish  descent,  those  of 
combined  European  and  native  races,  and  the  pure- 
blooded  Indians.  The  first  have  been  technically  termed 
Criollas,  or  Creoles,  although  the  designation  has,  of 
recent  years,  been  used  in  a different  sense  ; the  second 
Mestizos,  or  mixed  race  ; whilst  the  third,  the  Indios,  are 
the  direct  descendants  of  the  peoples  who  occupied  the 
country  in  pre-Hispanic  times. 

The  total  population  is  estimated  at  fifteen  million 
souls,  or  possibly  slightly  under.  Of  this,  according  to 
the  census  of  1900,  the  people  of  purely  white  descent 
numbered  about  19  per  cent. ; the  Mestizos,  who  may 
be  looked  upon  as  the  typical  Mexicans  of  to-day,  43 
per  cent. ; whilst  the  remaining  38  per  cent,  were  assigned 
as  the  proportion  for  the  Indians.  The  figures  and 
divisions  cannot  be  looked  upon,  however,  as  arbitrary 
or  exact.  At  the  present  time  it  is  considered  that  the 

154 


THE  MEXICAN  PEOPLE 


155 


Mestizo  class  probably  embraces  more  than  half  of 
the  total,  whilst  the  real  proportion  of  people  of  absolutely 
pure  white  race  is  probably  much  less  than  described, 
possibly  not  more  than  io  per  cent.,  as  the  mixture 
permeates  all  classes. 

The  white  and  mixed  races,  especially  the  former, 
constitute  the  property-owning  and  administrative  classes, 
and  naturally  the  Mexican  upper  class  is  drawn  from 
these.  The  six  million  Indians,  more  or  less,  con- 
stitute some  fifty  aboriginal  tribes  in  various  stages  of 
semi-civilisation  or  savagery,  distributed  all  over  the 
country  from  Sonora  to  Yucatan,  and  these  are  described 
elsewhere.  It  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  they  are  savages 
as  a whole;  for,  on  the  contrary,  they  are  remarkably 
gifted  in  some  cases,  assimilating  the  civilisation  and 
intellect  of  the  white  man  and  furnishing  excellent 
material  for  the  country’s  citizens.  The  upper-class 
Mexicans,  like  the  Peruvians  or  other  Spanish-Americans 
when  they  are  of  unmixed  white  descent,  naturally  pride 
themselves  upon  the  fact,  and  to  a certain  extent  aim  to 
preserve  this  condition.  This  is  the  “colour-line”  of  the 
race,  and  the  term  “Indio”  is  still  a term  expressing 
something  of  contempt,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that 
some  of  the  prominent,  and  even  intellectual,  men 
of  Mexico’s  history  have  been  drawn  from  the  Mestizo 
class,  and — in  the  case  of  Juarez — from  pure  aboriginal 
stock.  Of  course,  the  Indian  is,  as  yet,  an  inferior  being. 

Included  in  Mexico’s  population  is  a foreign  element 
numbering  some  60,000  people,  more  or  less,  Spaniards 
predominating,  with  more  than  16,000,  and  Americans  of 
the  United  States  with  somewhat  over  15,000.  This  is 
according  to  the  census  of  1900,  and  it  is  probable  that 
both  these  elements  have  increased  considerably  since 
then.  Of  British  there  are  only  some  3,000  in  the 
country;  of  French  about  4,000  ; and  of  Germans  2,600, 
approximately.  The  vast  area  of  Mexican  territory  con- 
tains only  about  twenty  persons  to  the  square  mile  ; were 
it  populated  in  the  same  ratio  as  parts  of  Europe  it  might 
support  a population  of  180,000,000,  it  has  been  calculated. 


156 


MEXICO 


As  has  been  shown,  but  a small  percentage  of  the 
Mexican  people  are  of  purely  white  descent.  As  for 
the  characteristic  type  of  Mexican — those  of  mixed  white 
and  aboriginal  race — they  form  the  principal  human 
element  of  the  country,  and  shade  off  indefinably  into 
the  peon  class.  This  class,  drawn  both  from  Mestizos  and 
Indians,  forms  the  great  working  population,  in  the  fields 
and  the  mines,  and  without  them  the  national  industries 
would  be  non-existent.  They  are  a picturesque,  poor  and 
generally  ignorant  class,  although  possessed  of  excellent 
natural  elements  and  traits  which  must  develop  as  time 
goes  on.  They  form  a strong,  virile  backbone  to  the 
country,  but  the  conditions  of  their  life  are  at  present  but 
little  removed  from  serfdom,  due  to  their  general  poverty 
as  a class  and  to  the  monopolisation  of  the  ownership 
of  land  by  the  upper  classes.  In  this  connection  it  is  to 
be  recollected  that  the  natives  of  the  civilised  pre- 
Hispanic  States  of  the  Americas — as  Mexico  and  Peru — 
enjoyed  an  excellent  system  of  individual  land-tenure,  or 
rather,  of  free  land-use,  which  gave  being  to  a strong, 
independent  peasantry  ; and  this,  in  Peru,  still  obtains  to 
a certain  degree,  due  principally  to  the  inaccessibility 
of  the  Andine  regions.  But  in  Mexico  such  a class  no 
longer  exists,  and  the  peon  lives  by  sufferance  upon  the 
soil  which  was  wrested  from  his  forbears  by  the  white 
man,  who  adopted  there  the  singular  land  customs  of 
Europe,  which  arrogate  to  the  enjoyment  of  a few  the 
soil  which  philosophy  points  to  as  belonging  to  the  com- 
munity.1 Enormous  landed  estates  are  held  in  Mexico — 
indeed,  in  the  State  of  Chihuahua  the  largest  single 
estate  in  the  world  exists — and  a semi-feudal  regime  of 
the  land  and  its  inhabitants  marks  the  character  of  this 
modern  American  civilisation.  The  population  on  the 
soil  scarcely  reaches  twenty  persons  to  the  square  mile — 
principally  rural  or  inhabiting  small  towns — and  there 
is  ample  room,  therefore,  for  expansion.  It  must,  how- 
ever, be  stated  that  excellent  new  land  laws  have  been 

1 In  certain  regions  there  are,  of  course,  numerous  Indian  squatters  and 
landholders. 


THE  MEXICAN  PEOPLE 


157 


promulgated  of  recent  years  in  the  Republic.  National 
lands  have  been  set  aside  in  vast  areas,  and  any  in- 
habitant of  the  Republic  may  “ denounce  " or  acquire  a 
piece  of  such  land,  and  retain  it  by  annual  tax-payment 
at  prices  varying  from  two  pesos — a peso  is  about  two 
shillings — in  the  remote  regions,  to  twenty  or  thirty 
pesos  per  hectare — equal  to  2\  acres — in  the  more 
settled  States.  The  Mexican  peasantry  is  not  debarred 
absolutely  from  the  enjoyment  of  the  land  if  he  has  the 
knowledge  and  means  to  perform  the  simple  require- 
ments necessary  to  its  acquisition — which  generally  he 
has  not.  I have  dealt  in  detail  with  the  matters  of  land 
acquisition  elsewhere  in  this  work,  and  with  the  con- 
ditions of  life  of  and  the  character  of  the  peon  class 
familiarly. 

To  cast,  now,  a glance  at  ethnic  conditions,  it  is 
sufficient  to  say  that  a wide  range  of  peoples  have 
mingled  their  blood  in  the  race  which  now  forms  the 
people  of  Mexico.  No  other  American  nation  constitutes 
so  varied  a blending  of  races.  The  invading  Conquista- 
dores  and  their  followers  from  Spain — which  itself  has 
formed  from  the  beginning  of  history  a veritable  crucible 
or  mixing-ground  of  the  world's  peoples,  languages  and 
creeds — brought  Iberian,  Roman,  Celtic,  Semite,  Vandal, 
Goth,  and  Moorish  blood  to  Mexico,  and  mingled  it  with 
the  aboriginal  Aztecs  and  others.  As  to  the  origin  of 
the  Mexican  aboriginals,  this  is  unknown  or  only  con- 
jectured, but  they  embrace  an  enormous  range  of  tribes, 
some  230  names  of  which  appear  in  the  list  compiled  by 
Mexican  ethnologists.  These,  however,  are  grouped 
into  some  twelve  or  more  linguistic  families,  among 
whom  may  be  mentioned  in  order  of  their  numerical 
importance  the  Nahuatlan,  Otomian,  Zapotecan,  Mayan, 
Tarascan,  Totonacan,  Piman,  Zoquean,  and  others, 
including  the  Serian  and  the  Athapascan,  or  Apache. 
These  families  embody  people  of  very  varying  degrees 
of  native  culture ; from  the  low  type  of  the  abject 
Seri  Indians,  inhabiting  part  of  Sonora  ; the  treacherous 
and  bloodthirsty  Apaches,  who  formerly  roved  over 


158 


MEXICO 


the  vast  deserts  of  the  north,  up  to  the  cultured 
peoples  who  formed  the  prehistoric  civilisation  of 
the  country ; the  Nahuatl-  and  Maya-speaking  races, 
who,  in  the  peninsula  of  Yucatan  and  the  Valley  of 
Mexico,  were  the  foremost  peoples  in  point  of  culture 
of  the  whole  of  the  New  World,  and  who  have  left  the 
remarkable  chapters  in  stone  of  their  history  which  are 
scattered  about  Mexico,  and  which  have  been  described 
in  a former  chapter. 

To-day  the  vast  area  and  different  peoples  of  Mexico 
are  combined  politically  into  one  community — a Federa- 
tion of  States  or  Federal  Republic  ; and  the  blending 
of  the  peoples,  carnally,  goes  on  day  by  day,  as  there  are 
not  inseparable  distinctions  of  colour  or  creed  to  keep 
them  asunder.  Politically  Mexico  may  be  considered  as 
the  foremost  of  the  Spanish-American  Republics,  her 
population  being  the  greatest,  and  her  civilisation  more 
broadly  developed  than  any  of  her  sister-nations.  The 
form  of  government,  as  stated,  is  that  known  as  a 
Federal  Republic — a definition  of  which  is  that  the 
numerous  States  composing  the  whole  are  free  and 
sovereign  as  regards  their  internal  regime,  but  united  under 
their  representative,  democratic  Constitution  as  a political 
entity. 

The  Constitution  is  fashioned  upon  the  model  of  the 
United  States  to  a certain  extent,  and  as  a Federation 
differs  from  most  of  the  other  Spanish-American 
republics.  The  supreme  authority  of  the  Republic  is 
held  and  exercised  by  three  bodies — the  Legislative,  the 
Executive,  and  the  Judiciary.  The  Legislative  embodies 
the  Congress,  or  Parliament,  consisting  of  the  Chamber 
of  Deputies  and  the  Senate,  the  members  of  which 
are  elected,  the  first  in  the  proportion  of  one  for  every 
60,000  inhabitants,  every  two  years : and  the  second  of  two 
Senators  for  each  State  every  four  years.  The  Judiciary 
consists  of  the  Supreme  and  other  courts,  the  judges  of 
the  first  being  elected,  and  the  business  of  the  body 
relates  to  law  and  justice  concerning  Federal,  political, 
and  international  matters.  The  Executive  in  Mexico 


THE  MEXICAN  PEOPLE 


159 


consists  of  a single  depositary  of  authority — the  President, 
who,  with  the  vice-president,  is  elected,  and  who  enter 
upon  office  on  the  ist  of  December,  for  terms  of  six 
years.  The  Constitution  which  all  these  officials  swear 
to  uphold  is  that  first  brought  to  being  on  February  5, 
1857,  with  various  modifications.  By  the  Reform  Laws 
of  1859,  and  their  additions  of  1873,  the  Church  and 
State  are  absolutely  independent  of  each  other,  and  the 
power  and  functions  of  the  ecclesiastical  authority  are 
rigidly  defined.  The  Federation  consists  of  thirty-one 
States  and  “territories,”  which  latter  are  subject  to 
Federal  control  and  regulation  of  their  internal  regime , 
unlike  the  former.  The  States  are  governed  by 
Governors. 

Mexico  has,  therefore,  well  established  all  the 
machinery  of  a republic,  wherein  equal  rights  of  man 
and  the  sovereignty  of  the  people  are  well  set  forth. 
How  do  these  excellent  methods  and  theories  work  out 
in  practice  as  regards  the  social  system  and  inhabitants  ? 
A republic  in  name,  Mexico  shares  with  Spanish- 
American  countries  generally,  social  conditions  which 
are  far  from  being  embodied  in  the  real  meaning  of  that 
designation.  It  is  not  necessary  to  dwell  much  upon 
this  palpable  fact,  and  its  reason  is  not  far  to  seek. 
The  communities  of  the  New  World  which  Spain 
conquered  were  inhabited  by  inferior  peoples  who  were 
easily  enslaved,  or  who  were  already  subject  to  autocratic 
forms  of  government.  Every  Spaniard  who  arrived  there 
— were  he  a noble  of  Castile  or  a common  boor  from  his 
native  Iberian  province — was  full  of  the  arrogance  and 
superiority,  sometimes  fancied,  generally  real,  of  the 
civilised  European,  and  this  spirit  burst  into  full  bloom 
amid  the  environment  of  such  countries  as  Mexico  and 
Peru.  Thus  an  autocratic  race  was  established  whose 
class  distinctions  are  as  strong  and  enduring  as  those  of 
the  most  class-ridden  countries  of  Europe.  It  would 
be  impossible  to  expect  other  conditions  yet,  with  a 
great  mass  of  the  people  being  of  Indian  race,  and 
coming  on  almost  imperceptibly  towards  civic  know- 


160 


MEXICO 


ledge  and  intellectual  advancement.  Scarcely  13  per 
cent,  of  the  total  population  can  read  and  write, 
whilst  as  to  the  labouring  classes  they  are  only  just 
beginning  to  show  any  advancement  along  lines  of 
modern  civilisation.  Nevertheless  the  Government  of 
the  country  has  their  welfare  at  heart,  and  in  the  last 
quarter  of  a century  has  regarded  the  working  classes 
and  Indians  as  citizens  with  rights  rather  than  mere 
material  for  revolutionary  struggle,  as  was  formerly 
the  case.  The  Mexico  people  having  always  been 
sharply  divided  into  two  classes,  an  upper  and  a lower  ; 
a middle-class,  such  as  in  Europe  or  the  United  States 
forms  the  great  bulk  of  intelligent  citizens,  tends  but 
slowly  to  appear,  and  it  is  this  which  must  be  encouraged 
to  arise  and  to  absorb  the  aboriginal  element. 

The  upper  class  Mexican  is  often  a well-educated 
and  well-informed  man  of  the  world,  and  in  appearance 
and  habit  differs  little  from  the  European.  His  wealth 
has  permitted  him  to  be  educated  in  the  best  establish- 
ments his  country  affords,  or  often  abroad,  in  France, 
England,  and  in  a less  degree  the  United  States,  and 
to  spend  years  in  Europe  and  live  a life  of  ease,  prefer- 
ably in  Paris — that  true  Mecca  of  the  Spanish-American 
people.  The  Mexican  gentleman  is  generally  courteous 
and  punctilious,  and  gives  much  attention  to  dress  and 
matters  of  ceremony,  after  the  general  manner  of  the 
Spanish-American,  and  the  frock-coat  and  silk  hat  form 
his  indispensable  exterior  whenever  possible.  His 
courtesy  pervades  his  business  relations  generally,  as 
well  as  social  affairs.  And,  indeed,  this  pleasing  quality 
permeates  the  whole  social  regime  from  the  highest 
official  or  wealthy  citizen  down  to  the  poorest  peon  or 
to  the  Indian  labourer.  The  matter  of  courtesy,  in 
addition  to  being  native  both  with  the  Spanish 
progenitor  and  the  native  race,  is,  it  might  be  said, 
part  of  the  political  Constitution.  The  republics  of 
Spanish-America  at  least  regard  all  men  as  equal  in  this 
sense,  a condition  which  is  far  from  existing  in  the 
Anglo-Saxon  Republic  of  the  United  States,  where 


■o 


THE  MEXICAN  PEONES  : STREET  SCENE  AT  CORDOVA. 


THE  MEXICAN  PEOPLE 


161 


brusque  assertion  of  even  the  meanest  authority  is 
evident,  in  the  present  development  of  that  country. 
Nor  is  it  to  be  supposed  that  Mexican  politeness  is  a 
mere  veneer,  or  mask,  to  be  put  on  and  off  as 
occasion  dictates,  for  it  arises  from  native  kindliness — 
a species  of  Quixotism  of  a laudable  nature. 

The  Mexican  largely  shares  the  spirit  of  hospitality 
of  the  Spanish-American  race,  and  this,  besides  being  a 
native  characteristic,  was  strongly  implanted  in  colonial 
days  by  the  very  exigencies  and  circumstances  of  the 
times.  In  some  parts  of  the  country,  until  recent  years, 
hotels  or  inns  were  unknown  ; and  it  was  sufficient  for 
the  traveller  to  knock  at  almost  any  door  to  ask  and 
receive  food  and  shelter  for  himself  and  his  retainers  and 
beasts,  even  though  the  people  of  the  place  might 
be  ignorant  of  his  name  or  business  : and  the  best  that 
was  forthcoming  was  put  at  his  service.  Something 
of  practical  patriarchal  simplicity  governed  life  in 
regions  more  remote  from  main  routes  of  travel,  which 
held,  and  indeed  still  hold,  much  of  charm  for  the 
traveller  from  lands  whose  hospitality — as  Britain  or  the 
United  States — is  the  result  often  of  ostentation  or  social 
necessity  rather  than  that  of  native  kindliness.  This 
amiable  trait  of  more  or  less  pastoral  communities,  as 
Mexico  and  South  America,  tends  naturally  to  dis- 
appear before  the  influence  of  the  commercial  element 
which  is  invading  the  country,  and  it  is  not  to  be 
expected  that  it  will  survive  always. 

The  Spanish-American  possesses  an  ineradicable 
element  of  Quijotismo — he  will  tell  us  so  himself — and 
this  element  seems  to  have  become  stronger  in  the 
New  World  than  in  Spain,  which  gave  it  origin. 
The  Mexican  has  it  to  the  full,  like  the  Peruvian ; 
doubtless  it  arises  largely  from  the  conditions  of  caste 
brought  about  by  the  existence  of  the  Mestizo  and 
the  Indian.  Trembling  on  the  verge  of  two  races,  his 
eyes  looking  towards  the  land  of  his  progenitors,  the 
enshrined  Spain  of  his  dreams,  with  something  of 
race-nostalgia — if  we  may  be  permitted  to  coin  the 

12 


162 


MEXICO 


term — yearning  for  the  distinction  of  the  white  skin 
and  traditions  of  European  civilisation,  yet  bound  to 
the  life  of  and  race  of  his  own  patria  by  reason  of 
the  native  blood  within  his  veins,  the  Hispanic 
Mexican  has  cultivated  a sensitive  social  spirit  which 
tinges  his  character  and  action  in  every-day  life. 
From  this  largely  arise  his  courtesy  and  spirit  of 
hospitality — although  these  are  undeniably  innate — and 
principally  his  love  of  pomp  and  externals,  the  keeping 
up  of  appearances,  and  his  profound  eloquence.  The 
Mexican  is  intensely  eloquent.  His  speakings  and 
writings  are  profuse  in  their  use  of  the  fulness  of  the 
Spanish  language,  and  teem  with  rich  words  and 
phrases  to  express  abstract  ideas.  Indeed,  judged  by 
Anglo-Saxon  habit,  they  would  be  termed  grandiloquent 
and  verbose.  He  indulges  in  similes  and  expressions 
as  rich  and  varied  as  the  vegetation  of  his  own 
tropical  lands.  The  most  profound  analogies  are 
called  up  to  prove  the  simplest  fact,  not  only  in  the 
realm  of  poetry,  or  description,  but  in  scientific  or 
business  matters  at  times,  and  whether  he  is  writing 
upon  some  deep  social  problem  or  reporting  upon 
the  condition  of  the  parish  pump  he  will  preface  his 
account  with  an  essay  ! This,  whilst  it  betrays  often 
an  attractive  idealism,  is  prone  at  times  to  lead  to  the 
sacrificing  of  exact  information  to  elegance  of  style 
or  diction.  The  Mexican  is  never  at  a loss  for  words  ; 
his  eloquence  is  native,  and  whether  it  be  the  impas- 
sioned oratory  of  a political  speaker  or  the  society 
small-talk  of  a young  man  in  the  presence  of  ladies, 
he  is  never  shy,  and  his  flow  of  language  and  gesture 
is  as  natural  to  him  as  reserve  and  brevity  to  the 
Englishman.  Indeed,  the  Anglo-Saxon,  especially  the 
Briton,  seems  repellant  in  comparison  with  the  Spanish- 
American,  and  to  cultivate  selfishness  rather  than 
ceremony  in  his  own  social  dealings. 

This  tendency  towards  idealism  becomes  exaggeration 
often,  though  not  intended  for  such,  and  the  prefixing 
of  superlatives  is  very  noticeable  in  ordinary  language. 


THE  MEXICAN  PEOPLE 


163 


Thus  glory  is  generally  “ immortal  glory  ” ; knowledge 
“profound  knowledge”;  every  person  partaking  in  public 
affairs,  if  a friend  of  the  speaker,  is  ever  “enlightened 
and  patriotic,”  and  his  intelligence  becomes  “ vast  intelli- 
gence.” “ Our  distinguished  and  universally  beloved 
Governor”  would  be  the  customary  reference  to  such  a 
functionary;  and  “an  era  of  glorious  progress”  would 
be  the  only  way  of  characterising  his  administration. 
Indeed,  a glance  over  a Mexican  book  or  article  or 
speech  seems  to  show  that  the  writer  has  made  use 
of  every  elegant  and  abstruse  word  in  the  dictionary.  In 
a dissertation  upon  any  subject  he  seems  called  upon 
to  begin  from  the  very  beginning  of  things,  desde  la 
creation  del  inundo — “ from  the  beginning  of  the  world,” 
as  the  Spanish-American  himself  sarcastically  says  at 
times.  Perhaps  this  is  a habit  acquired  from  the  early 
Spanish  chroniclers,  who  often  began  their  literary  works 
with  an  account  of  the  Creation  ! The  love  of  linking 
together  the  material  and  the  poetic  is,  of  course,  at  the 
basis  of  this  striving  after  effect,  and  no  philosophical 
observer  would  pretend  to  hold  it  up  to  ridicule.  Anglo- 
Saxon  civilisation  grows  material  and  commercial  ; the 
Spanish-American  preserves  and  cultivates  some  poetic 
and  cultured  imagery  ; and  perhaps  Nature  intends  the 
one  to  affect  the  other  in  the  future  amalgamation  of  the 
world’s  races. 

Less  lovable  a characteristic  of  the  Spanish-American 
is  the  tendency  to  fulsome  adulation  of  public  or  power- 
ful personages  in  the  hope  of  winning  patronage.  The 
tendency  to  pander  to  each  other's  vanity,  however,  shows 
up  in  marked  contrast  to  the  harshness  and  abuse  of 
authority  often  employed  in  political  matters.  The 
Spanish  character,  amiable  and  courteous  in  friendship  or 
equality,  tends  to  become  arbitrary  when  vested  with 
some  brief  authority,  and  this  has  been  at  the  bottom 
of  much  of  the  political  disturbance  and  bloodshed  of 
the  past.  It  is  characteristic  of  this  race  to  show  a 
certain  “ Oriental  ” trait — that  which  gives  rise  to  an 
acquiescence  in  successful  guile,  rather  than  an  admira- 


164 


MEXICO 


tion  and  self-sacrifice  for  abstract  truth.  This  is,  of 
course,  a characteristic  both  of  individuals  and  nations 
before  they  reach  a certain  standard  of  civilisation.  The 
readiness  to  follow  the  successful  cause  among  the  upper 
class,  and  the  easy  regard  of  the  unpunished  criminal, 
are  the  outcome  of  these  qualities.  In  business  matters 
the  Spanish-American,  the  Mexican  Peruvian,  Chilean, 
Brazilian,  or  other  has  a much  less  sense  of  rigid 
observance  of  agreements,  and  a far  greater  latitude 
of  expediency  and  mental  juggling  than  the  Anglo- 
Saxon.  And  this  insinuation  embodies  one  of  the  main 
defects  of  the  race.  Ideas  of  “mine”  and  “thine  "are 
much  less  strong  than  with  the  Briton  or  American.  It 
has  been  said  of  the  Spaniard  that  he  makes  excellent 
laws,  but  ever  considers  that  he  personally  has  a right  to 
break  them.  This  sentiment  becomes  very  evident  in 
America  : yet  not  only  with  the  Spanish-American,  for 
it  is  a marked  characteristic  of  the  United  States,  and 
of  all  American  republics,  where  licence  is  often  in- 
dulged in  under  the  name  of  liberty. 

The  Mexican  character  must  be  summed  up  as  that 
of  a people  in  the  making.  The  fact  is  stamped  upon 
their  physiognomies  even.  Let  us  turn  over  the  pages 
of  any  book  issued  in  Mexico  and  observe  the  portraits 
of  public  men  and  of  their  biographies,  for  it  will 
generally  be  full  of  these,  often  pandering  to  their  vanity. 
The  features  are  strongly  pronounced,  and  at  times  verge 
upon  the  grotesque — we  mean  it  in  no  offensive  spirit. 
A high  intelligence  runs  riot,  and  an  idealism  untem- 
pered by  sobriety  and  practice,  with  strong  passions,  and 
love  of  show.  But  they  mark  a people,  not  decadent, 
but  evolving.  The  Mexicans  are  at  the  beginning,  not 
the  end,  of  their  civilisation  ; the  rise,  not  the  fall,  of  their 
life.  Here  is  the  material  of  a vigorous  and  prolific  race 
which  may  be  destined  to  bulk  largely — like  the  whole 
of  Spanish-America — in  the  future  regime  of  the  civili- 
sation of  the  white  man. 

The  “era  of  glorious  progress” — to  use  the  Mexican 
term — which  the  long  dictatorship  of  the  present  famous 


A FAMOUS  MINISTER  OF  FINANCE  : 
SENOR  LIMANTOUR. 


A FAMOUS  GENERAL  AND  MINISTER 
OF  PUBLIC  WORKS. 


AN  ARCHBISHOP 


A STATE  GOVERNOR. 


Types  of  Mexicans  of  the  Upper  Class. 


[To  face  />.  164. 


THE  MEXICAN  PEOPLE 


165 


President  of  Mexico  inaugurated  is  a theme  which 
occupies  the  Mexican  mind  and  pen  very  largely.  The 
European  writer  ungrudgingly  records  it,  and  the  much- 
used  adjective  has  much  of  truth  for  its  constant  use. 
General  Porfirio  Diaz  has  been  wise  and  fortunate,  and 
has  been  able  to  surround  his  administration  with  the 
talented  men  of  his  time — una  pleiade  incontable  de 
hombres  conspicuos,  to  quote  from  a Mexican  descrip- 
tion of  his  colleagues — “ an  innumerable  pleiades  of 
conspicuous  men  !"  in  their  own  grandiloquent  phrases. 
As  for  the  President,  it  might  be  supposed  that  the 
tendency  to  deify  him  by  his  contemporaries,  and  the 
constant  pouring  out  of  adulation  and  flattery  upon 
him  for  the  last  twenty  years,  has  made  him  proof  against 
the  workings  of  vanity.  He  well  deserves  this  praise, 
both  from  his  countrymen  and  from  foreigners  ; but  so 
long  and  varied  a course  of  it  must  prove  unpalatable, 
notwithstanding  that  the  Spanish-American,  as  a rule, 
is  capable  of  absorbing  an  infinite  amount  of  praise. 
Porfirio  Diaz  has  brought  his  country  up  from  chaos, 
and  for  this  fortunate  work  he  has  to  thank  his  own 
staunch  character  and  the  fact  that  a time  had  arrived 
in  the  natural  evolution  of  America  when  even  the  most 
turbulent  States  are  called  upon  to  perform  their  function 
and  carry  out  their  destiny.  The  man  and  the  hour 
arrived  together,  and  Diaz  deserves  to  rank  among  the 
historic  statesmen  of  the  world. 

The  Mexicans,  in  their  oratory  and  writings,  are 
still  congratulating  themselves  upon  their  overthrow 
of  the  power  of  the  Church,  and  of  the  other 
ancient  tyrannies  which  were  a bar  to  their  progress 
as  a modern  nation.  But  the  tendency — though  grow- 
ing less  as  time  goes  on — is  to  overrate  this.  They 
pride  themselves  on  being  “ modern,”  and  congratulate 
themselves  on  every  occasion  upon  having  destroyed 
past  traditions.  But  it  is  easy,  in  wiping  away  the  evils 
of  the  past  with  too  vigorous  a hand,  to  destroy  at  the 
same  time  much  that  is  of  good  report.  Mexico 
possesses  traditions,  religious  influences,  historical  and 


166 


MEXICO 


literary  associations  which  are  of  great  value,  and 
possessed  by  no  other  American  community  upon  that 
continent.  These  can  never  be  replaced  by  the  plumed 
hat  of  the  General  and  all  that  it  conveys,  nor  by  the 
freethinker,  nor  by  the  factory  whistle  and  overalled 
mechanic,  nor,  indeed,  by  the  elements  of  a strenuous 
commercialism  generally.  As  time  goes  on  and  civil  life 
broadens  and  develops  this  attitude  will  be  moderated — 
it  is  but  a phase  of  the  country’s  history,  and  indeed 
a healthy  one,  to  cry  for  progress  and  the  modern 
spirit. 

Much  of  this  cry  for  modern  things,  as  well  as  some 
other  of  the  characteristics  of  the  Spanish-American, 
comes  from  the  desire  to  be  considered  highly  civilised. 
This  feeling,  whether  in  Mexico  or  South  America, 
gives  birth  at  times  to  a certain  feverish  spirit  of  con- 
struction, and  is  responsible  for  the  existence  of  railways, 
but  no  roads  ; electric  light  in  streets  without  sewers, 
and  pretentious-looking  stucco  buildings  where  solid 
stone  should  have  been  employed.  Buenos  Ayres,  Lima, 
Santiago,  Mexico — all  bear  witness  to  this  tendency,  in 
more  or  less  degree.  And  under  the  garish  electric  arc 
at  night,  or  silhouetted  against  the  new  white  stucco 
wall  of  some  costly  hygienic  institution,  or  art  gallery, 
or  Governor’s  palace,  glaring  in  the  bright  sun,  stands 
the  incongruous  figure  of  the  half-naked  and  sandalled 
Indian,  ignorant  and  poverty-stricken  ! These,  indeed, 
are  elements  of  Spanish-American  civilisation  which  the 
philosopher  sees  and  ponders  upon.  In  fact,  the  cha- 
racter of  the  Latin  races  seems  sometimes  to  tend  to  run 
off  into  ultra-scientific  methods  and  institutions  before 
the  every-day  welfare  of  its  citizens  is  secured.  Elaborate 
meteorological  observations,  great  schools  of  medicine 
with  costly  apparatus,  and  great  penitentiaries  are  to  be 
found  as  prominent  features  in  all  Spanish-American 
capitals,  where  they  have  been  inaugurated  with  much 
fanfare  of  oratory  regarding  civilisation.  In  Mexico, 
Lima,  Buenos  Ayres,  and  other  great  centres  of  Spanish- 
American  life,  the  Penetenciaria  is  always  a show- 


MEXICAN  LIFE  : THE  CATHEDRAL  AND  THE  PENITENTIARY,  CITY  OF  PUEBLA. 


[To  face  f>.  166. 


THE  MEXICAN  PEOPLE 


167 


place,  or  notable  institution  to  which  visitors’  attention 
is  drawn.  This,  however,  seems  to  be  rather  a develop- 
ment of  modern  American  civilisation  all  through,  and 
whether  in  New  York — and  indeed  Canada — or  whether 
in  Mexico,  Peru,  Chile,  or  Argentina,  greater  care  seems 
to  be  expended  upon  the  welfare  of  the  criminal  than 
on  the  ordinary  poor  citizen  ! 

As  previously  observed,  Mexican  society  falls  into  lines 
of  marked  class  distinction.  The  rich  and  the  educated 
stand  in  sharp  juxtaposition  to  the  great  bulk  of  poor 
and  uneducated,  and  the  high  silk  hat  and  frock-coat 
form  a striking  contrast  to  the  half-naked  and  sandalled 
peon  in  the  plazas  and  streets  of  the  cities.  Similarly 
does  the  caballero,  the  horseman  on  caparisoned  steed, 
spurn  the  dust  on  country  roads  through  which  the 
humble  cotton-clad  Indian  labourer  slinks  to  his  toil. 
The  horse,  in  Mexico,  is  always  an  outward  sign  of 
social  superiority,  and  no  self-respecting  Mexican 
would  ever  be  seen  on  foot  beyond  the  paved  streets 
of  his  cities.  The  noble  animal  is  an  integral  part  of 
Mexican  life,  social  or  industrial,  and  the  Mexicans  are 
in  some  respects  the  most  expert  horsemen  in  the  world, 
as  elsewhere  shown. 

The  upper-class  Mexican  is  generally  a large  land- 
owner.  The  great  estates  which  form  his  hacienda  lie 
in  one  or  the  other  part  of  the  country,  whether  upon 
the  great  tableland  or  in  the  tropical  regions  which 
surround  it.  He  spends  a certain  period  of  the  year 
upon  his  hacienda,  returning  to  the  capital  or  journeying 
to  Europe  as  desire  or  necessity  may  dictate.  Great 
plantations  of  cotton,  or  immense  areas  of  sugar-cane, 
or  maguey,  or  other  products  yield  him  the  considerable 
income  which  he  enjoys  ; and,  as  a rule,  the  fertile  lands 
of  the  Republic  are  in  the  hands  of  this  class,  to  the 
exclusion  of  the  great  bulk  of  the  inhabitants.  But  the 
haciendas  are  important  centres  of  industry,  supporting 
the  rural  population  in  their  vicinity. 

The  Mexican  shares  the  characteristics  of  the  Latin 
race  in  his  love  for  politics,  military  and  other  titles 


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and  distinctions,  and  his  predilection  for  holding  some 
Government  office.  The  law,  the  army,  medicine  are 
professions  which  appeal  to  him  as  affording  distinction 
or  degree,  as  well  as  giving  outlet  to  the  love  of  scientific 
pursuits,  generally,  however,  theoretical  rather  than  prac- 
tical. On  all  sides  one  hears  men  addressed  as  “ Doctor,” 
whether  it  be  of  science,  laws,  medicine,  or  divinity. 
This  condition  is  observed  by  the  traveller  in  all 
Spanish-American  republics,  and  it  seems  to  the 
foreign  observer  that  the  practical  and  plodding  class 
of  workers  and  trade-makers  is  insufficiently  repre- 
sented, bearing  in  mind  the  large  amount  of  scientific 
and  theoretical  leadership.  This  is  in  accordance  with 
the  dictates  of  caste,  inherited  from  Spain.  The  upper 
class  have  always  had  Indians  to  wait  upon  them,  and  a 
Quixotic  tendency  to  the  despising  of  manual  labour  has 
naturally  resulted,  as  among  the  leisured  class  of  any  other 
country.  Any  occupation  that  cannot  be  performed  in 
the  habiliments  of  the  frock-coat  and  silk  hat  seems 
derogatory  to  the  Spanish-American,  and,  filtering  down 
through  all  the  strata  of  society  above  the  peones  this 
sentiment  has  the  effect  of  keeping  the  young  men  in  the 
cities  and  robbing  the  country  of  a race  of  intelligent 
peasants  of  white  descent.  The  Spanish-American  youth 
of  the  poorer  class  prefers  to  pass  the  days  behind  a 
counter  selling  cashmeres  and  silks  to  bargaining 
senoritas  rather  than  to  take  up  work  on  the  land, 
which  urgently  requires  more  distributed  and  intelli- 
gent cultivation. 

The  young  Mexican  of  the  upper  class  cares  little 
for  sport  as  understood  by  the  Anglo-Saxon,  and  the 
strenuous  games  of  the  young  Briton  or  American,  or 
the  hard  work  of  British  sport,  are  alien  to  his  ease- 
loving  nature.  It  is  true  that  tennis  and  football  and 
even  polo  are  played  to  a limited  extent  by  enthusiastic 
young  men  in  the  capital,  who  have  followed  the 
example  of  British  or  American  residents,  but  it  is  not 
to  be  expected  that  these  alien  games  could  be  grafted 
upon  a different  stock.  Horsemanship  is,  of  course,  a 


THE  MEXICAN  PEOPLE 


169 


natural  pastime  ; but  this  has  nothing  in  common  with 
the  pastime  of  the  English  hunting-fields,  notwithstand- 
ing that  a certain  class  of  Mexicans  are  exceedingly 
famous  as  horsemen  and  have  no  superiors  in  the 
world  in  this  art,  in  some  respects. 

As  regards  political  distinction  and  career,  the  system 
obtaining  in  Spanish-American  countries — like  that  of  the 
United  States — causes  a change  every  few  years  of  almost 
the  whole  official  body,  from  President  and  Cabinet 
Ministers  downwards.  This  has  advantages  and  dis- 
advantages. It  certainly  creates  a large  and  generally 
capable  governing  class  or  clique.  It  is  rare  in  the 
society  of  the  capitals  of  these  countries  to  find  pro- 
minent men  who,  at  one  time  or  other,  have  not  been 
Cabinet  Ministers  or  held  other  important  State  office. 
This  gives — to  the  foreigner  at  least — a somewhat  farcical 
impression  of  the  life  of  the  community,  but,  at  any  rate, 
it  may  be  conceded  that  the  Republican  method  gives 
nearly  all  good  citizens  “a  show,”  to  use  an  Americanism, 
in  the  State  or  municipal  life. 

Whilst,  up  to  recent  years,  almost  all  the  administra- 
tive positions  were  filled  by  men  with  military  titles, 
there  is  now  a tendency  to  use  the  talent  of  men  of 
civil  professions  in  those  departments  of  State  corre- 
sponding thereto.  Thus  it  is  refreshing  to  observe  that 
the  Department  of  Fomento — Development  or  Promo- 
tion— one  of  the  most  important,  has  at  its  head  and 
secondary  positions  men  who  are  Engineers,  not  Generals. 
This  Department  is  concerned  with  the  railways,  roads, 
mines,  irrigation,  and  all  matters  of  a similar  nature,  and 
its  administration  naturally  calls  for  technical  knowledge 
which  the  ubiquitous  General  does  not  often  possess. 
The  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs  has  been  a lawyer 
(licenciado)  as  well  as  his  seconds ; others  of  the 
Cabinet  Ministers  are  of  the  same  professions,  and  the 
principal  representatives  of  the  country  abroad,  their 
ambassadors,  are  men  whose  simple  titles  of  “Senor 
Don,”  and  “ Honourable  ” show  their  civil  origin. 
So  the  picturesque  and  vigorous  military  element,  in- 


170 


MEXICO 


valuable  in  its  place,  is  kept  within  its  natural  bounds, 
and  as  the  pages  of  the  book  of  Mexico  are  turned  over 
the  portraits  of  distinguished  men  with  plumed  hats  and 
sword  and  uniform  tend  to  become  less  and  the  civilian 
dress  and  the  thoughtful  brow  of  the  educated  civil 
statesman  take  their  place.  Among  the  ancient  Mexi- 
cans, in  pre-Hispanic  days,  commerce  was  a most 
honourable  calling,  as  indeed  were  the  handicrafts. 
But  until  recent  years  the  titles  of  soldier  and  priest 
in  Christian  Mexico — as,  indeed,  it  was  in  mediaeval 
Europe — seemed  to  be  those  which  alone  called  for 
respect. 

The  Mexicans  are  very  careful  to  preserve  the  forms 
of  their  Republican  system  of  government  in  the  con- 
duct of  affairs  of  State,  whether  in  principle  or  nomen- 
clature. A decree  is  prefaced  with  “ The  Citizen 
President  so  decrees,”  is  addressed  to  a “ Citizen 
Secretary,  Citizen  Governor,”  or  other,  and  terminates 
with  the  words  “ Independence  and  Liberty.”  Statues 
and  streets,  and  institutions  on  every  hand  convey  the 
recollections  of  liberty  and  reform.  The  Calle  de  la 
Independencia,  that  of  the  Cinco  de  Mayo  (Fifth  of  May), 
the  Paseo  de  la  Reforma,  and  other  kindred  names  are 
much  in  evidence,  and  the  Anglo-Saxon  observer  is 
startled  from  his  own  prosaic  world  to  one  where  the 
matters  of  civic  machinery  and  romantic  pretension 
people  its  everyday  life.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  the 
average  Mexican  knows  more  about  the  chief  men  of 
his  patria,  and  its  history  and  institutions,  than  does 
the  average  Briton  or  American  of  his  country.  The 
educated  Mexican  speaks  correct  and  expressive 
Spanish,  which  language — the  Castellano — is,  of  course, 
the  language  of  the  country.  In  addition,  he  invariably 
speaks  French,  for  in  his  generation  this  has  ever  been 
considered  the  mark  of  a polite  education.  English  he 
may  speak  in  addition,  but  not  so  universally.  When 
we  ask  the  Mexican  gentleman  of  the  old  school  if  he 
speaks  English  there  will  the  slightest  shrug  of  the 
shoulders  or  lifting  of  the  eyebrows.  “ No,  senor,”  he 


THE  MEXICAN  PEOPLE 


171 


will  reply,  perhaps  with  a polite  expression  of  regret; 
“but,  on  the  other  hand,  1 speak  French.”  Neverthe- 
less, he  very  often  does  speak  English,  and  with  fluency, 
acquired  in  England  or  the  United  States — preferably  the 
former,  he  will  add. 

The  Spanish  of  Mexico  is  very  similar  to  that  of  Peru, 
and  this  says  much  for  a language  separated  by  such 
vast  distances.  The  same  good  accent  and  facility  of 
expression  and  gesture,  the  same  native  eloquence, 
grandiloquent  similies,  philosophical  allusions  and  vivid 
descriptions,  not  only  concerning  things  great  and  im- 
portant, but  things  commonplace  and  everyday.  The 
Mexican,  however,  partakes  less  of  this  character  than 
the  Peruvian.  The  pronunciation  of  the  words,  and 
especially  of  their  termination,  marks  a great  difference 
between  the  Mexican  and  Peruvian  on  the  one  hand  and 
the  Chilian  on  the  other.  The  latter  has  developed  a 
chopped  and  incomplete  pronunciation,  although  it 
betrays  the  energetic  and  virile  character  of  the  Chileno 
in  contrast  to  the  more  effeminate  Peruvian. 

Life  in  Mexican  cities  does  not  lack  colour  and  interest, 
and  the  peoples  to  be  encountered  in  the  streets  show  very 
varying  traits  and  occupations.  Here  is  the  carriage  of 
a wealthy  citizen,  drawn  by  a splendid  pair  of  imported 
English  horses  ; here  is  a sweet-faced  senorita,  bending 
her  steps  towards  her  favourite  temple,  accompanied  by 
some  vigilant  chaperon  or  domestic  ; here  two  Mexican 
gentlemen  pass  each  other  on  the  narrow  curb,  each 
insisting  upon  giving  the  other  the  inside — the  place 
of  honour — and  ceremoniously  raising  their  silk  hats  to 
each  other  in  salutation.  Along  comes  a bull-fighter 
now,  with  his  distinctive  hat,  slouch,  and  shaven  face, 
the  redoubtable  torero , accompanied  by  admiring  amigos, 
ready  to  pay  for  all  the  copas  their  hero  might,  with 
lordly  dignity,  desire  to  partake  of.  In  the  middle  of 
the  stone-paved  street  the  peones,  or  perhaps  some 
Indians  from  the  country,  porters,  cargadores,  or  other 
humble  occupation,  slink  along — the  footpath  is  not  for 
them — with  their  pantaloons  of  cotton  manta  rolled  up  to 


172 


MEXICO 


their  knees  and  their  feet  unshod  or  sandalled.  The 
Mexican  woman  of  the  Indian  class  prefers  to  carry 
her  shoes  in  her  hand  when  she  enters  or  leaves  the 
city  streets,  putting  them  on  only  as  a concession  to 
civilisation  and  removing  them  when  away.  Some 
years  ago  it  was  necessary  to  pass  a regulation  to  the 
effect  that  the  Indians  must  wear  trousers  or  other 
covering  when  in  the  city,  as  they  continually  asserted 
their  aboriginal  love  of  bodily  freedom  by  appearing 
without  them  ! The  life  and  colour  of  Mexican  towns 
is  characteristic,  and  the  Mexican  journeying  to  Britain’s 
cities  finds  life  flat  and  colourless,  without  gleam  of 
interest  for  him,  its  more  solid  basis  of  existence  not 
easily  falling  into  his  comprehension. 

It  is  the  spectacular  which  more  readily  appeals  to 
the  Mexican.  The  bull-fight,  with  its  accompaniments 
of  showy  dress,  tense  excitement,  and  elements  of 
danger  and  bloodshed,  is  his  favourite  amusement. 
Military  parades  and  political  functions  enter  largely 
into  the  distractions  of  polite  life,  as  indeed  is  the  case 
throughout  Spanish-America  generally.  Military  titles 
are  exceedingly  numerous.  Formerly  it  was  rare  that 
a President,  a Cabinet  Minister,  the  Governor  of  a State, 
or  the  official  head  of  a department  did  not  carry 
the  distinction  of  general  or  colonel.  The  dormant 
military  spirit,  indeed — and  in  view  of  Mexico’s  history 
it  could  hardly  be  otherwise — permeates  the  whole  body 
politic,  and  its  influence  and  effects  give  place  very 
slowly  to  civil  ideas.  The  tramp  of  armed  men  and 
accoutred  horses,  the  roll  of  drum  and  call  of  trumpet, 
appeal  ever  to  this  race  of  warlike  instinct.  The  gleam 
of  arms  and  sabre  possesses  for  them  an  attraction 
which  the  ploughshare  or  the  miner’s  drill  can  never 
impart.  Their  ancestors,  on  the  one  side,  were  the 
warlike  Aztecs  and  other  aboriginal  races,  and  on  the 
other  the  Conquistadores  and  martial  men  of  Spain. 
A note  of  their  stirring  national  anthem,  with  its  war- 
like words  and  martial  strain,  and  the  soldier — and 
warrior — instinct  arises  : — 


THE  FAMOUS  MEXICAN  “RURALES,”  OR  RURAL  MOUNTED  POLICE. 


THE  MEXICAN  PEOPLE 


173 


“ Mexicanos  al  grito  de  guerra 
El  fierro  apretad  i el  bridon  ! 
Y retumba  sus  entranas  la  tierra 
Al  sonoro  rugir  del  canon ! ” 


Which  might  almost  be  translated  in  the  fiery  words 
of  the— 


“ Pibroch  of  Donnel  Dhu  ; pibroch  of  Donnel, 

Wake  thy  wild  voice  anew  ; summon  clan  Connel. 
Come  away ! come  away  ! hark  to  the  summons, 
Come  in  your  war  array,  gentles  and  commons  ! ” 


From  such  stern  matters  let  us  turn  to  a gentler  theme 
— the  woman  of  Mexico.  The  cultured  upper-class  are 
extremely  exclusive  as  regards  their  women.  Any  sense 
of  liberty  or  independence  such  as  characterises  the 
English  or  American  girl  is  impossible  with  the  Mexican. 
Between  the  sexes  social  intercourse  before  marriage  is 
much  restricted ; the  rigid  etiquette  and  seclusion  of 
years  gone  by — almost  Moorish  in  its  character — scarcely 
giving  way  to  the  more  tolerant  ideas  which  pervade 
society  in  general  elsewhere.  Nevertheless,  there  has 
been  some  improvement  in  this  condition,  partly  due  to 
the  influence  of  the  numerous  foreigners  who  reside  in 
the  capital,  and,  no  doubt,  time  will  effect  a change. 
But  far  be  it  from  the  philosophical  observer  to  suggest 
that  such  conditions  should  be  hastily  swept  away.  The 
Mexican,  and  Spanish-American  woman  generally,  retains 
qualities  and  attributes,  due  partly  to  her  up-bringing, 
which  in  some  respects  gain  rather  than  lose  in  com- 
parison with  the  Anglo-Saxon  woman. 

The  Mexican  lady  is  generally  of  refined  and  distin- 
guished manner  and  of  a characteristically  handsome 
type,  with  expressive  eyes  and  a wealth  of  fine  hair. 
As  a girl  she  is  of  voluptuous  form,  remarkably  attractive, 
and  of  romantic  disposition.  Her  outlook  on  life  is 
naturally  somewhat  restricted  ; its  main  culminating 
point  is  in  love  and  marriage  ; and  indeed  the  amorous 


174 


MEXICO 


passions  in  the  Mexican  race  of  both  sexes  are  exceed- 
ingly strongly  developed,  and  very  largely  determine  their 
friendships  or  quarrels.  There  is  a slumberous  Southern 
fire  in  the  Mexican  girls’  eyes  and  love.  Her  passion  is 
consuming,  and  has  not  the  sense  of  expediency  of  the 
cold  Northern  races. 

This  attractiveness  of  outward  demeanour  is  accom- 
panied often  by  sterling  qualities  which  make  for  happy 
motherhood.  But  most  women  of  Spanish-American 
countries  sacrifice  themselves  to  their  children,  nor 
endeavour  to  preserve  their  youth  much  beyond  its 
allotted  span.  Also,  lack  of  hygienic  measures — as  that 
of  active  exercise — and  the  too  excessive  use  of  paint  and 
powder  in  the  toilette  seem  to  bring  on  an  early  middle 
age.  But  apart  from  this  it  is  a natural  condition  of  the 
race  that  it  matures  early — the  Mexican  girl  is  ripe  for 
marriage  long  before  her  Anglo-Saxon  sisters — and  then 
pays  the  penalty  of  an  earlier  fading.  When  there  is  an 
admixture  of  the  aboriginal  strain — and  in  few  families 
this  is  absent — a tendency  to  extreme  stoutness  exists  as 
middle  age  approaches,  especially  among  women  of  the 
leisure  class,  whose  life  calls  for  no  active  labour  as 
among  their  poorer  sisters.  Sweet,  soft,  and  melancholy, 
yet  often  vivacious  and  always  simpatica — such  is  the 
impression  of  the  Mexican  girl  which  remains  upon  the 
mind  of  the  foreigner  who  has  known  her.  It  is  always 
evident  to  the  foreign  observer  that  a too  exaggerated 
habit  of  seclusion  and  reserve  between  the  sexes,  such  as 
prevails  in  Spanish-American  countries,  defeats  its  own 
ends  to  some  extent.  The  men  of  these  countries,  whilst 
outwardly  courteous  and  correcto  towards  their  women, 
to  an  almost  excessive  degree,  have  not  the  real  respect 
towards  them  which  the  less  polite  Anglo-Saxon  enter- 
tains towards  his  feminine  world.  Nor  does  this  too 
artificial  barrier  conduce  to  any  rigid  condition  of 
morality.  It  rather  tends  to  encourage  clandestine 
courtship  and  amours. 

But  the  Mexican  girl’s  nature  calls  for  admiration  and 
notice.  Behold  the  main  street  of  the  city  during  the 


THE  MEXICAN  PEOPLE 


175 


fashionable  shopping  hours,  lined  with  admiring  young 
men,  who  make  audible  remarks  as  to  the  beauty  of  eyes, 
hair,  or  figure  of  the  passing  sehoritas — remarks  which 
would  give  grave  offence  in  cold-blooded  England,  but 
which  are  heard  with  inward  gratification  by  their 
recipients.  These  young  men  of  fashion  make  it  an 
event  of  the  day  to  line  up  in  this  way,  attired  in  fashion- 
able garb,  with  an  exaggerated  height  of  collar  and 
length  of  cuff  ! Largartijos — lizards — they  are  dubbed 
in  the  language  of  the  country. 

In  the  social  life  of  Mexican  cities  religion  plays  an 
important  part.  Indeed,  religion  is  the  basis  of  politics — 
that  is  to  say,  the  two  political  parties  of  the  country 
are  divided  upon  questions  of  religious  control.  Mexico, 
although  the  State  divorced  itself  long  ago  from  the 
Church,  is,  nevertheless,  one  of  the  firmest  strongholds 
of  Roman  Catholicism  in  the  New  World.  The  hand- 
some cathedral  and  numerous  fine  churches  in  the 
capital  City  of  Mexico,  as  in  the  capitals  of  the  various 
States,  attest  the  fervour  of  the  people’s  religion.  The 
numerous  Church  feast-days  and  varying  functions  form 
the  most  important  events  of  society.  On  the  more 
special  occasions,  as  during  the  Semana  Santa,  or  Passion 
Week,  almost  frenzied  multitudes — men  as  well  as  women 
— attend  the  churches,  entrance  to  which,  unless  one  has 
gone  early,  it  is  impossible  to  gain  on  account  of  the 
multitude.  Among  a large  section  of  the  Mexican  people, 
however,  religious  observance  has  very  greatly  fallen  into 
disuse,  a result  of  matters  which  have  been  previously 
dealt  with,  and  which  include  the  influence  of  former 
French  thought;  for  Mexicans  have  always  made  an  intense 
study  and  example  of  French  philosophers  and  methods. 
But  in  the  main  it  is  the  natural  reaction  against 
centuries  of  clerical  domination,  which  the  evolving 
modern  spirit  will  have  none  of.  The  Roman  Catholic 
Church  in  Mexico  brought  about  its  own  downfall.  The 
following  translation  from  a recently  published  Mexican 
book  shows  the  spirit  pervading  the  modern  Mexico  in 
this  connection  : "The  prevailing  religion  is  Roman 


176 


MEXICO 


Catholicism,  but  it  may  be  said  that  its  cult  is  confined 
to  the  weaker  sex,  as  the  majority  of  the  men,  although 
Catholic,  do  not  practise  any  religion.  Thus  the  State 
of  Vera  Cruz  (for  example)  enjoys  the  fame  of  being 
Liberal.  Marriage  statistics  show  that  in  one  year 
2,500  civil  marriages  were  consummated  against  1,218 
ecclesiastical.”  This  is  the  State  of  Vera  Cruz,  of  the 
“ True  Cross,”  where  the  Conquistadores  tumbled  down 
the  Aztec  idols  from  their  teocallis  and  set  up  the  image 
of  the  Virgin  and  Child  ! 

But  the  Church  and  her  religion  is  the  Spanish- 
American  woman’s  special  kingdom.  The  attendance 
at  Mass  upon  the  Sabbath  is  the  most  important  of  her 
engagements.  Whether  in  the  cool  of  the  early  morn- 
ing, before  the  dewdrops  have  fallen  from  the  flowers  in 
the  plaza,  or  whether  at  a later  fashionable  hour,  she  is  to 
be  seen,  in  charge  of  her  chaperon,  her  fair  face  shaded 
by  the  romantic  mantilla  whose  use  time  has  failed  to 
banish,  devoutly  directing  her  steps  towards  her  favourite 
temple.  Perhaps — confess  it  ! — you  have  followed  her, 
and  one  bright  glance  has  rewarded  you  before  she  dis- 
appeared within  the  portal — 

“ Para  que  te  mire,  mujer  divina  ; 

Para  que  contemple  tu  faz  hermosa  ? 

Y tu  labio  encendido,  cual  rosa 
Es  mi  delirio  . . .” 


Otherwise,  the  distractions  of  the  Mexican  women  are 
few.  Yet  our  sweet  damsel  of  the  dark  eyes  and  demure 
lips  who  daily  enters  her  temple,  applauds  with  her  little 
gloved  hands — with  the  approval  and  accompaniment  of 
her  mamma — the  onslaught  of  the  fierce  bull  at  the  bull- 
fight, and  sees  the  torturing  of  the  unfortunate  horses 
as,  their  life-blood  rushing  forth,  they  expire  in  the  arena 
before  her.  And  the  populace — ha  ! the  populace  of 
holiday  peones — how  frenziedly  they  shout ! And  the  band 
plays  a soft  air,  and  the  blue  Mexican  sky  shimmers  over- 
head. Love,  blood,  wine,  dust — 0 tempora  ! 0 mores  ! 


SPANISH-COLONIAL  CHURCH  ARCHITECTURE  : A TYPICAL  MEXICAN  TEMPLE. 


[To  face  p.  176. 


THE  MEXICAN  PEOPLE 


177 


This  is  Mexico  ; carrying  into  the  twentieth  century 
the  romance  of  the  Middle  Ages,  tinging  her  new 
civilisation  still  with  the  strong  passions  of  the  old, 
and  refusing — whether  unwisely,  whether  wisely,  time 
shall  show — to  assimilate  the  doctrines  of  sheer  com- 
mercialism whose  votaries  are  hammering  at  her  gates. 
But  it  is  time  now  to  review  the  cities  and  homes  of 
this  picturesque  and  developing  people. 


13 


CHAPTER  X 


THE  CITIES  AND  INSTITUTIONS  OF  MEXICO 

Character  of  Mexican  cities — Value  of  Mexican  civilisation — Types  of 
Mexican  architecture — Mexican  homes  and  buildings — The  Plaza — 
Social  relations  of  classes — The  City  of  Mexico — Valley  of  Mexico — 
Latitude,  elevation,  and  temperature — Buildings — Bird’s-eye  view — 
The  lakes — Drainage  works — Viga  canal  and  floating  gardens — 
General  description  — The  cathedral  — Art  treasures  — Religious 
orders  — Chapultepec  — Pasco  de  la  Reforma  — The  President  — 
Description  of  a bull-fight — Country  homes  and  suburbs — Colleges, 
clubs,  literary  institutions — Churches  and  public  buildings — Army 
and  Navy — Cost  of  living  — Police  — Lighting  and  tramways  — 
Canadian  enterprise — British  commercial  relations — The  American — 
United  States  influence — A general  impression  of  Mexico. 

Mexico  is  a land  of  numerous  capital  cities — far  more 
numerous  than  those  of  any  South  American  country. 
These  cities  are  entirely  distinct  in  type  to  the  centres 
of  population  of  Anglo-Saxon  North  America.  Their 
structure,  environment,  atmosphere,  are  those  of  the  Old 
World  rather  than  the  New — that  is  to  say,  if  the  cities  of 
the  United  States  and  Canada  are  to  be  taken  as  American 
types. 

Their  character  is  that  distinct  Spanish-American  one 
ever  encountered  in  the  countries  which  were  the  main 
centres  of  Spanish  civilisation.  Consequently  there  is 
much  similarity  between  them.  Standing  in  the  Zocalo, 
or  plaza  of  the  City  of  Mexico,  in  front  of  the  fine 
cathedral,  we  might  imagine  ourselves  transported  2,500 
miles,  more  or  less,  to  the  south-east,  to  the  handsome 
city  of  Lima  with  its  plaza  and  cathedral.  But  we  may 
journey  over  the  whole  of  Anglo-Saxon  America,  north 
of  the  Mexican  border,  and  we  shall  find  nothing  similar. 

178 


CITIES  AND  INSTITUTIONS  179 


The  difference  in  character  of  the  two  nationalities  of 
the  Americas  is  plainly  stamped  upon  their  respective 
cities.  The  one  is  sealed  with  a hurried  activity — the 
mark  of  the  exigencies  of  commerce  ; the  windows  and 
doors  of  a business  world,  where  men  look  out  or  emerge 
to  the  strife  of  money-making.  Notwithstanding  its 
wealth  and  solidity  it  bears  a certain  ephemeral  stamp 
which  the  Mexican  type  does  not  convey.  The  atmo- 
sphere of  this  is  one  of  serenity,  of  indifference  to  the 
feverish  haste  of  money-getting,  and  its  windows  and 
doors  give  sight  and  footstep  to  less  modern,  less  useful, 
perchance,  but  less  evanescent  a phase  of  civilisation. 
Let  us  theorise  as  we  may,  let  us  say  what  we  will,  about 
the  progress  of  the  world,  but  we  continue  to  hope 
that  the  quiet  civilisation  of  Spanish-America  will  pre- 
serve its  character,  for  who  can  doubt  that  in  the  plan 
of  nature  there  is  some  meaning  in  this  preservation  of  a 
race  which  refuses  to  make  the  strife  of  commerce  its 
main  basis  of  progress. 

History  and  tradition  are  stamped  upon  the  fafades  of 
the  stone-built  cities  of  Mexico — religion  and  aristocracy 
have  left  their  mark.  They  are  cities  of  churches  and 
convents,  and  of  the  abodes  of  the  authoritative  and  the 
wealthy.  They  are  far  from  being  “ republican  ” in 
aspect — that  is,  if  the  term  is  meant  to  convey  the  idea  of 
democracy.  The  Governor’s  palace,  the  military  cuartel, 
the  ecclesiastical  seat,  form  the  centres  from  which 

!the  ordinary  streets  and  life  of  the  people  radiate. 
The  general  structure  and  disposition  of  these  cities 
is  dignified  and  convenient.  The  dominant  idea  is  the 
central  plaza,  upon  whose  four  sides  are  the  abodes  of 
the  authorities.  First  is  the  cathedral,  whose  facade 
takes  up  a whole  side,  or,  if  the  place  is  not  a capital, 
an  extensive  church — the  iglesia — occupies  the  place  of 
honour.  Following  this  are  the  national  or  municipal 
palaces,  where  the  public  business  is  transacted,  whilst 
on  the  opposite  sides  are  clubs,  shops,  or  other  main 
centres  of  business  or  pleasure. 

Generally,  the  upper  storeys  of  the  buildings  in  the 


180 


MEXICO 


plaza — except  the  ecclesiastical — overhang  the  footpaths, 
or,  rather,  are  built  over  them,  supported  by  the  character- 
istic portales,  or  series  of  arches  and  pillars  facing  the 
roadway.  This  type  of  structure  is  prevalent  in  almost 
all  the  older  Spanish-American  cities.  It  is  a feature 
of  Mexican  and  Peruvian  cities,  and  is  encountered  even 
in  remote  places  such  as  Arequipa  and  Cuzco,  the  old 
Inca  capital  in  the  heart  of  the  Andes,  where  it  was 
introduced  by  the  Spanish  builders. 

A similar  type  of  architecture,  especially  as  regards  the 
houses,  characterises  all  Mexican  cities  and  towns.  The 
plan  of  town  dwelling  is  that  with  interior  patio,  wide 
saguan,  or  entrance  door,  and  windows  covered  with 
outside  grilles,  either  of  bars  or  of  wrought-iron  scroll- 
work. From  this  patio,  which  in  the  wealthier  houses 
is  paved  with  marble,  the  doorways  of  the  lower  apart- 
ments open.  The  houses  are  of  two  storeys,  and  access 
to  the  upper  is  gained  by  a broad  staircase  which  ter- 
minates on  a wide  balcony,  or,  rather,  gallery,  above 
the  patio.  From  this  gallery  the  doors  of  the  upper 
rooms  open.  A balustrade  runs  round  the  outer  side 
of  the  gallery,  and  this  is  generally  covered  with  flowering 
plants,  ferns,  and  palms,  in  pots  or  tubs,  which  lend  an 
air  of  coolness  and  luxury  to  the  interior.  Above,  the 
patio  is  open  to  the  sky,  except  that  the  overhanging 
roof  of  the  house  covers  the  gallery,  from  which  it  is 
supported  by  pillars.  The  whole  arrangement  is  pleasing, 
and  adapted  to  the  climate,  and  the  foreigner  who  has 
become  accustomed  to  it  finds  that  it  possesses  certain 
advantages  which  the  houses  of  his  own  country  do  not 
enjoy. 

On  the  other  hand,  this  plan  of  building  has  grave 
drawbacks.  The  absence  of  a garden  or  grounds  in 
front  of,  or  surrounding  the  house,  gives  a restricted 
feeling.  The  main  difference  between  an  English  and 
a Mexican  house  is  that  the  Briton  loves  to  cut  off  too- 
close  intercourse  with  humanity  by  retiring  his  dwelling 
far  from  the  road,  whilst  the  Spanish-American  builds 
his  fronting  immediately  upon  the  street.  In  these 


SPANISH-COLONIAL  ARCHITECTURE  : THE  PORTALES  OF  CHOLULA. 


CITIES  AND  INSTITUTIONS  181 


houses,  moreover,  the  rooms  generally  open  one  into 
the  other,  which  is  far  from  the  Northerner's  idea  of 
privacy.  This  fact,  indeed,  is  born  of  a race  character- 
istic— the  closer  association  between  the  members  of 
families  which  obtains  with  the  Latin  race.  The  guest 
in  these  houses — somewhat  to  his  embarrassment  if  he 
be  an  Englishman — sometimes  finds  a glass  door,  with 
no  means  of  screening  him  from  observation,  the  dv vision 
between  his  apartment  and  that  of  some  other — possibly 
a reception-room  ! Moreover,  light  and  ventilation  often 
seem  quite  secondary  matters,  for  as  a rule  the  rooms — 
in  the  case  of  the  interior  one — simply  open  on  to  the 
patio  gallery  above  it  if  it  be  the  second  floor,  with 
glass  door  and  no  windows.  Consequently,  if  light  or 
air  are  required,  it  is  necessary  to  keep  these  open, 
and  this  is,  of  course,  difficult  at  night.  The  Mexican 
thinks  nothing  of  sleeping  in  a closed-up  room  all  night, 
and  shuts  his  doors  and  windows — where  windows  exist 
— and  closes  his  shutters  to  the  “ dangers  ” of  the  outside 
air  ! 

There  are  rarely  fireplaces  or  stoves  in  Mexican  houses. 
Of  course,  in  the  tropics  these  are  not  required,  but  in  the 
cities  of  the  uplands  it  is  often  bitterly  cold.  There  is  a 
popular  belief  that  warming  the  air  of  a room  by  artificial 
heat  in  the  rarefied  air  of  the  uplands  induces  pneumonia, 
but  it  is  doubtful  if  this  has  any  real  foundation.  And 
the  Mexican  prefers  to  shiver  under  cover  of  a poncho, 
rather  than  to  sit  in  comfort  and  warmth,  after  the 
European  or  American  fashion.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  Englishman  who  has  experienced  the  inveterate 
habit  of  overheating  of  the  houses  and  offices  of  New 
York  or  other  parts  of  the  United  States  will  prefer  the 
Mexican  method.  Nothing  is  more  trying  to  the  Briton 
than  the  sudden  change  of  temperature  from  the  high- 
heated  American  office  or  house  to  the  bitter  cold  of  its 
winter  streets,  such  conditions  as  prevail  in  the  United 
States  : or  the  overheating  of  American  trains. 

The  architecture  of  Mexican  cities  is  often  of  a solid 
and  enduring  type,  especially  the  buildings  of  older 


182 


MEXICO 


construction  ; and  many  of  these  date  from  the  time 
of  the  earlier  viceroys.  All  public  buildings  and 
ecclesiastical  edifices  are  of  this  nature.  The  modern 
buildings  have,  in  some  instances,  followed  out  the 
same  style,  eminently  suitable  for  the  country,  but  others 
have  adopted  a bastard  and  incongruous  so-called 
“ modern  ” type,  copied  from  similar  structures  in 
Europe  or  the  United  States,  where  pure  utility  of 
interior  has  been  clothed  with  undignified  exterior 
of  commercial  character,  marking  a certain  spirit  of 
transition  in  its  inhabitants.  This  is  partly  due  to  the 
ruthless  American  industrial  invasion,  which,  whilst  it 
has  valuable  elements  for  the  country,  should  not  be 
allowed  to  stamp  a shoddy  modernism  upon  the  more 
dignified  antiquity  of  environment.  This  tendency,  how- 
ever, has  not  yet  had  time  to  show  itself,  except  in  a few 
instances  in  the  capital.  Nevertheless,  some  portions  of 
the  City  of  Mexico  have  already  been  spoilt  by  the 
speculative  Anglo-American  builder,  who  has  generally 
called  himself  an  architect  in  order  to  perpetrate  appalling 
rows  of  cheap  adobe  houses  or  pretentious- looking  villas, 
made  of  the  slimmest  material  and  faced  with  that  sin- 
covering  cloak  of  tepetatl,  or  plaster  “ staff.”  Even  some 
of  the  principal  streets  of  the  capital  have  been  disfigured 
with  hideous  pretentious  business  structures,  for  which 
the  Anglo-American  element,  whether  in  fact  or  example, 
has  been  responsible.  If  the  Mexicans  are  wise  they  will 
sternly  refuse  to  adopt  much  of  steel  construction  or  of 
“ staff  ” and  corrugated  iron  covering  imported  from  the 
north,  but  to  limit  their  buildings  to  native  materials  of 
stone  or  brick  and  their  elevation  to  two  or,  at  most,  three 
storeys.  The  skyscraper  is  at  home  in  New  York  or 
Chicago  ; in  Mexico  (or  in  London)  it  is  the  abomination 
of  desolation.  In  San  Francisco  the  outraged  earth 
endeavoured  to  shake  them  off  a year  or  so  ago  in  an 
earthquake  ! An  attractive  feature  of  Mexican  houses 
is  the  flat  roofs,  or  azoteas.  These  are  often  made 
accessible  from  the  interior  and  adorned  with  plants 
and  flowers,  and  even  the  heavy  rain-storms  of  certain 


CITIES  AND  INSTITUTIONS  183 


regions  do  not  seem  to  influence  this  type  of  construction 
or  demand  the  rapid  watershed  of  the  gabled  roof. 
During  the  time  of  the  conquest  of  the  City  of  Mexico 
these  azoteas  formed  veritable  coigns  of  vantage  for 
the  Aztecs,  who  poured  down  a hail  of  darts  and  stones 
upon  the  besiegers. 

The  plaza  of  the  Spanish-American  city  is  its  main 
centre.  Thence  the  principal  streets  emerge,  and  there, 
upon  its  prettily  planted  and  shady  promenade  fore- 
gather the  people  to  listen  to  the  serenata,  or  playing 
of  the  band  on  frequent  occasions.  The  Mexicans  are 
passionately  fond  of  music,  and  a wise  governmental 
sentiment  has  found  that  it  is  a useful  part  of  govern- 
ment. Therefore  it  is  decreed  that  the  bands  shall  play, 
free  of  cost,  to  the  multitude.  In  some  cities  the  plaza- 
promenade  has  two  paved  footpaths  adjoining  each 
other — the  inner  for  the  elite  and  well-dressed  class, 
the  outer  for  the  peon  and  Indian  class.  It  would  be 
manifestly  impossible  that  the  hordes  of  blanket-clothed, 
/w/gwe-saturated,  ill-smelling,  and  picturesque  lower  class 
could  rub  shoulders  with  the  genie  decente  or  upper 
class,  nor  do  they  desire  to  do  so.  They  take  their  fill 
of  the  music  quite  indifferent  to  the  presence  of  their 
superiors  in  the  social  grade,  and  the  vendors  of  native 
sweetmeats,  cooling  drinks,  and  fruits  ply  their  trade 
among  them.  On  one  side  of  the  plaza,  in  the  smaller 
towns,  there  are  booths  or  tables  where  food  is  being 
cooked  and  displayed  for  the  lower  orders ; and  the 
savoury  odour  of  frijoles  and  tortillas,  or  other  matters 
of  satisfaction  to  the  peon,  greet  the  nostrils  of  the 
promenader  from  time  to  time.  The  well-dressed 
senoritas  and  their  male  acquaintances,  with  ceaseless 
charla,  or  small-talk,  promenade  round  and  round  the 
plaza,  flirting,  laughing,  and  enjoying  life  in  a way 
that  seems  only  possible  to  the  Latin  race.  Indeed, 
the  plaza  is  the  principal  meeting-place  of  the  sexes. 

As  has  been  remarked,  Mexico  is  a land  of 
many  capital  cities.  From  the  City  of  Mexico,  north- 
ward along  the  plateau  and  southward,  eastward,  and 


184 


MEXICO 


westward,  we  may  visit  a score  of  handsome  State 
capitals,  a hundred  towns,  and  an  endless  succession 
of  remote  villages  and  hamlets.  Their  environments 
embrace  every  change  of  scenery — from  arid  plains 
and  rocky  steeps  to  fertile  valleys ; and  the  larger 
communities  share  the  quaint — if  not  always  hygienic 
— disposition  and  atmosphere  of  their  especial  national 
character.  At  times,  however,  the  smaller  hamlets,  or 
collection  of  primitive  habitations  of  the  plateau,  have 
an  inexpressibly  dreary  and  squalid  aspect,  the  backward- 
ness and  poverty  of  their  people  being  well  stamped 
thereon.  Treeless,  dusty,  and  triste,  they  strike  a note 
of  melancholy  within  us.  The  towns  of  the  Pacific 
and  Gulf  slopes  have  generally  some  added  charm 
afforded  by  the  tropic  vegetation  surrounding  them, 
and  we  shall  often  mark  with  surprise,  after  days  of 
dusty  and  arduous  journeying,  that  we  have  suddenly 
entered  a handsomely  built  town,  sequestered  far  from 
beaten  routes  of  travel,  yet  bearing  a stamp  of  per- 
manence and  solidity  and  the  air  of  an  independent 
entity. 

The  first  city  of  importance  in  the  country  is,  of  course, 
the  Federal  capital  of  the  Republic,  with  its  population  of 
369,000  inhabitants. 

Standing  towards  the  southern  extremity  of  the  great 
plateau  of  Anahuac,  reposing  in  a beautiful  valley  full  of 
natural  resources,  and  rich  with  historic  lore,  is  the  City 
of  Mexico.  Of  singular  and  varied  interest  is  this  capital 
of  the  prosperous  North  American  Republic  whose  name 
it  bears,  for  its  geographical  situation  and  historical  asso- 
ciations are  such  as  assign  it  a leading  place  among  the 
great  centres  of  Spanish-American  civilisation. 

In  many  respects  the  capital  of  Mexico  may  be  con- 
sidered the  queen  city  of  Latin  America.  Buenos  Ayres 
is  much  larger  and  of  greater  importance  as  a centre  of 
population,  but  it  has  not  Mexico’s  history  and  tradition. 
The  commerce  of  Santiago  and  Valparaiso  are  potent 
factors  in  the  life  of  the  Pacific  coast,  but  the  Chilean 
capital  and  seaport  are  but  modern  creations  in  com- 


1 


PUBLIC  GARDEN1  IN  TROPICAL  MEXICO  : VIEW  AT  COLIMA, 


CITIES  AND  INSTITUTIONS  185 


parison  with  the  old  city  of  the  land  of  Anahuac.  Only 
Lima,  the  beautiful  and  interesting  capital  of  her  sister 
nation — Peru — is  comparable  with  Mexico  as  a centre  of 
historical  tradition  and  Spanish-American  culture.  Of 
course,  the  City  of  Mexico  with  its  large  population  is 
much  larger  than  Lima,  with  less  than  150,000. 

Indeed,  there  are  many  points  of  similarity  between 
Mexico  and  Peru,  such  as  have  been  discussed  elsewhere, 
and  which  are  the  common  knowledge  of  the  student, 
but  the  City  of  Mexico  possesses  a special  interest  in  that 
it  was  actually  the  seat  of  a prehistoric  American  civilisa- 
tion— that  of  the  Aztecs — whilst  its  position  between  the 
great  oceans  which  bathe  the  American  coasts,  give  it  a 
value  for  the  future  of  untold  possibilities. 

The  Valley  of  Mexico,  wherein  the  capital  is  situated, 
is  a broad  elevated  plain,  or  basin,  surrounded  by  hills, 
which  culminate  far  away  to  the  south-east  in  the  snow- 
clad  summits  of  Popocatepetl  and  Ixtaccihuatl — the 
extinct  volcanoes  of  the  Sierra  Madre.  The  combined 
conditions  of  its  latitude  and  elevation  above  sea-level 
— 190  26  N.,  990  7 W.,  and  7,410  feet — have  dowered  it 
with  an  agreeable  and  salubrious  climate,  with  an  annual 
range  of  temperature  from  6o°  F.  to  750  F.  The  morn- 
ings are  cool  and  bracing,  often  bitterly  cold  indeed  ; 
whilst  the  midday  sun  is  often  hot,  and  the  Mexican  stays 
within  the  cool  of  his  thick-walled  house,  for  it  is  the 
hour  of  siesta.  Excessive  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  are 
not  encountered,  although  at  night  the  Mexican  gladly 
dons  his  velvet-lined  cape,  and  the  foreigner  his  over- 
coat, whilst  the  poor  peon  shrouds  himself  in  his  serape. 

The  city  is  one  of  handsome  buildings,  wide  streets, 
and  fine  avenues.  Its  architecture  bears  the  stamp  of 
its  Spanish  origin — the  typical  and  picturesque  facades 
of  the  houses,  the  grille-covered  windows,  the  balconies 
looking  on  to  the  streets,  and  other  characteristic 
features  well  known  to  the  traveller  in  Spanish- 
America.  The  great  plaza,  ever  the  pulse  and  centre 
of  these  communities,  is  known  here  as  the  Zocalo  ; 
and  this  ample  square  is  that  same  one  around  which 


186 


MEXICO 


the  Aztec  city — the  famous  Tenochtitlan — was  built, 
upon  whose  foundations  the  Mexican  capital  arose. 

The  plan  of  the  city  is  more  or  less  the  geometri- 
cally regular  one  of  main  and  cross-streets  running  at 
right  angles  to  each  other,  and  the  principal  of  these 
are  lined  with  shops,  whose  windows  display  luxurious 
articles  of  jewellery,  clothing,  and  other  effects  such 
as  betoken  the  taste  and  purchasing  power  of  a 
wealthy  upper  class.  It  is  a city  of  domes  and  towers, 
which  rise  above  the  surrounding  roofs,  and  convey 
that  aspect  of  charm  and  refinement  unknown  to  the 
purely  business  cities  of  Anglo  North  America.  The 
strong  part  which  the  Church  has  played  is  shown  by 
the  numerous  and  handsome  churches  in  every  quarter 
of  the  city.  There  are  more  than  one  hundred  and 
twenty  churches  and  other  edifices  which  were  built 
and  formerly  occupied  for  ecclesiastical  purposes. 
The  cathedral  is  the  dominating  structure,  and  its  two 
great  towers,  nearly  200  feet  high,  are  conspicuous 
from  any  point  of  view. 

Let  us  behold  this  pleasing  city  from  afar  before 
examining  more  in  detail  the  institutions  and  habita- 
tions of  its  people.  The  environs  of  the  capital  form 
a good  setting  to  its  beauty.  Taking  our  stand  on 
the  range  of  hills  which  bound  the  Valley  of  Mexico, 
our  eyes  rest  upon  the  cultivated  fields  and  gardens 
of  the  smaller  towns  which  dot  the  plain  and  lead  up 
to  the  central  mass.  Green  meadows,  running  streams, 
great  plantation  of  maguey , giving  their  characteristic 
semi-tropical  aspect  to  the  landscape,  surround 
haciendas  and  villages  embowered  in  luxuriant  foliage, 
all  lying  beneath  the  azure  vault  of  the  Mexican  sky. 
The  gleam  of  domes  and  towers,  softened  in  the 
glamour  of  the  distance,  catches  our  eyes ; and  the 
reposeful  atmosphere  and  mediaeval  tints  seem  to  belie 
the  strife  of  its  past,  or  even  the  incidents  of  its 
modern  industrial  life.  There  is  the  Castle  of  Chapul- 
tepec  surrounded  by  trees,  the  beautiful  and  venerable 
ahuahuetes,  or  cypresses,  surmounting  its  hill — the  Aztec 


CITIES  AND  INSTITUTIONS  187 


“Hill  of  the  Grasshoppers”  where  Montezuma's  palace 
was,  and  where  stands  the  fine  structure  reared  by  the 
viceroys,  now  the  official  residence  of  the  Presi- 
dents of  Mexico  of  to-day.  And  there  lies  Guadalupe 
gleaming  in  the  sun,  with  its  famous  shrine  of 
miraculous  visions  and  cures — the  Lourdes  of  Mexico. 
There  lie  Tacubaya,  San  Angel,  and  Tlalpam,  luxurious 
and  aristocratic  suburban  homes  of  Mexico's  wealthy 
citizens,  surrounded  by  their  exuberant  vegetation  on 
fertile  hillsides  mid  soft  and  soothing  colour  and  balmy 
atmosphere.  From  the  pine-clad  hills  whereon  we  stand, 
which  form  the  rim  of  this  singular  valley,  the  whole 
panorama  is  open  to  the  view,  of  lakes  and  flat  plain,  the 
latter  crossed  by  the  dusty  roads  cut  by  centuries  of 
traffic  through  the  white  adobe  soil,  giving  access  to  the 
surrounding  villages  and  the  serried  lines  of  the  maguey 
plantations,  or  the  chess-board  chequers  of  dark  green 
alfalfa,  lighter  barley,  and  yellow  maiz.  And  from  plain 
and  dusty  road,  and  vivid  hacienda  and  city  domes  and 
whitened  walls,  our  gaze  rises  to  the  clear-cut,  snowy 
crest  of  “The  Sleeping  Woman,”  Ixtaccihuatl,  in  her 
gleaming  porcelain  sheen,  where  she  hoards  the  treasures 
of  the  snow,  reminding  us  of  the  peaks  of  the  great  South 
American  Cordillera,  to  whose  system  she  and  her 
consort  Popocatepetl  are  but  a more  recent  addition. 
Like  legendary  sentinels  of  a vanished  past,  they  seem  to 
overwatch  the  valley. 

The  Valley  of  Mexico  is  a flat  plain,  in  the  lowest 
portion  of  which  the  City  of  Mexico  is  situated,  two 
or  three  miles  from  Lake  Texcoco.  The  plain  consists 
of  lands  barren  and  lands  cultivated,  marshes  and 
swamps,  all  intersected  by  numerous  streams  falling  into 
the  lakes,  as  well  as  irrigation  and  drainage  canals,  whilst 
on  the  rising  ground  which  appears  in  places  the  volcanic 
understructure  is  laid  bare,  often  in  the  form  of  great  lava 
sheets.  The  group  of  lakes  have  been  elsewhere  described 
in  these  pages.  Lake  Texcoco,  whose  shores  are  now 
distant  from  the  city,  is  a dreary  waste  of  brackish 
water  with  scarcely  any  fish-life,  inhabited  by  water-fowl 


188 


MEXICO 


at  certain  seasons.  During  the  period  of  overflow  its 
rising  waters  cover  many  added  square  miles  of  ground, 
but  in  the  dry  season  the  water  recedes,  leaving  saline- 
covered  marshes  of  desolate  aspect.  Lakes  Chaleo 
and  Xochimilco,  however,  are  very  different  in  their 
regimen  and  aspect.  They  are  of  fresh  water,  and  stand 
at  an  elevation  some  io  feet  higher  than  Texcoco,  into 
which  they  discharge.  Fertile  meadows  surround  these, 
and  Xochimilco  is  now,  as  it  was  at  the  time  of  the 
Conquest,  a “ Field  of  Flowers,”  which  is  the  meaning 
of  its  native  nomenclature,  not  unworthy  of  the  designa- 
tion of  an  “ earthly  paradise,”  which  the  modern  Mexicans 
bestow  upon  it. 

The  position  of  the  City  of  Mexico  near  Lake  Texcoco, 
which  receives  the  waters  of  all  the  other  lakes  of  the 
system,  has  ever  rendered  it  liable  to  inundation,  and 
to  a saturated  and  unhealthy  subsoil,  conditions  which, 
were  it  not  for  the  healthy  atmosphere  of  the  bracing 
uplands  whereon  the  valley  is  situated,  would  un- 
doubtedly make  for  a high  death-rate.  The  drainage 
and  control  of  the  waters  of  the  valley  have  formed 
matters  of  thought  for  Mexico’s  successive  Governments 
for  more  than  four  centuries.  Work  to  this  end  was 
begun  under  Montezuma  in  1449,  nearly  three-quarters 
of  a century  before  the  Conquest.  During  the  colonial 
regime  further  works  were  undertaken,  in  1553,  to  replace 
those  destroyed  by  Cortes,  followed  by  other  works  in 
1604  and  1708.  But  only  after  the  Republican  regime 
was  established  was  the  work  carried  to  completion, 
upon  a plan  brought  forward  by  a Mexican  engineer. 
These  works,  which  were  mainly  carried  out  during 
the  closing  years  of  last  century  by  English  firms 
of  engineers  and  contractors,1  consist  of  a canal  and 
tunnel.  The  canal  is  thirty  miles  long,  flowing  from 
the  city  and  bearing  its  sewage  and  storm-waters,  and 
taking  the  overflow  from  Lake  Texcoco  : and  dis- 
charging thence  into  a tunnel,  perforating  the  rim  of  the 
valley,  about  six  and  a half  miles  long.  This  in  turn 
1 S.  Pearson  & Sons,  Ltd.,  London,  and  Read,  Campbell  & Co. 


THE  VALLEY  OF  MEXICO  : THE  GREAT  DRAINAGE  CANAL 


CITIES  AND  INSTITUTIONS  189 


empties  into  a discharge  conduit  and  a ravine,  and  the 
waters,  after  having  served  for  purposes  of  irrigation 
and  for  actuating  a hydro-electric  station,  fall  into  an 
affluent  of  the  Panuco  river  and  so  into  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico.  This  work,  which  is  the  climax  of  the  attempts 
of  four  hundred  years  or  more,  reflects  much  credit  upon 
its  constructors  and  the  Government  of  Diaz,  which 
financed  it  at  a total  cost  of  sixteen  million  Mexican 
dollars. 

An  Aztec  hydraulic  work  of  the  Valley  of  Mexico 
is  the  Viga  Canal,  which  leads  from  the  Indian  quarter 
of  the  city,  crossing  swamps,  plantations,  and  waste 
lands  to  Xochimilco,  the  “ Field  of  Flowers.”  Along  this 
canal  ply  daily  primitive  canoes  and  punts  laden  with 
vegetables,  flowers,  and  other  produce  for  the  native 
market.  The  floating  gardens,  or  chinampas,  far-famed 
of  Mexico,  are  encountered  upon  this  canal.  But,  alas  ! 
the  “floating  gardens”  do  not  float,  nor  is  it  possible 
to  prove  that  they  ever  did,  in  plain,  prosaic  fact. 
They  consist  of  areas  of  spongy  soil  intersected  by 
numerous  irrigation  ditches,  where  the  traveller  may 
observe  the  Indian  owners  industrially  watering  them 
and  tending  their  profuse  array  of  flowers  and  vegetables. 
New  “floating  gardens”  are  sometimes  made  by  the 
method  of  driving  stakes  into  the  shallow  bottom  of 
the  lake,  winding  rushes  about  them  and  filling  in  with 
the  fertile  mud. 

The  city  itself  is  surrounded  on  all  sides,  except  that 
leading  to  Chapultepec,  by  miles  of  squalid  streets,  where 
dwell  the  poor  and  outcast  of  the  community — and  their 
name  is  legion.  Yet  these  surroundings,  if  squalid,  are 
less  painful  than  the  frightful  East  End  dens  of  London, 
or  the  appalling  Bowery  and  east  side  of  New  York. 
American  cities,  whether  North  or  South,  have  produced 
nothing  in  their  boasted  march  towards  “ liberty,”  which 
is  an  alleviation  for  the  proletariat,  above  the  cities  of 
Europe.  These  mean  yet  picturesque  streets  give  place 
as  we  enter  to  those  inhabited  by  the  better  class,  whose 
dwellings  generally  exist  side  by  side  and  interspersed 


1 


190 


MEXICO 


with  the  shops  and  commercial  establishments,  after  the 
general  fashion  of  Spanish-American  cities.  This  is  indeed 
a notable  feature  of  their  regimen.  Here  is  the  old  home 
of  a former  viceroy  or  of  a modern  grandee,  cheek  by 
jowl  with  a little  bread  or  liquor  shop  ; its  handsome 
doorway,  worthy  of  study,  but  a few  paces  away  from 
the  humble  entrance  of  the  tienda  aforesaid.  The  names 
of  some  of  Mexico’s  streets  and  squares  are  reminiscent 
of  the  past  or  of  fanciful  story  and  legend  and  heroic 
incident.  Here  is  the  pnente  de  Alvarado,  formerly  the 
Teolticalli,  or  Toltec  canal  ; here  the  street  of  the 
Indio  triste,  or  that  of  the  Nino  perdido ; the  “ sad 
Indian”  and  the  “lost  child”  respectively.  Redolent 
of  the  Mexico  of  the  viceroys,  of  political  intrigue,  of 
love  and  liasons,  of  the  cloak  and  the  dagger,  are  some 
of  the  old  streets,  balconies,  and  portals  of  Mexico. 
Here  the  Spanish  cavalier,  with  sword  and  muffling 
cape,  stalked  through  the  gloom  to  some  intrigue  of 
love  or  villainy,  and  here  passed  cassocked  priest  and 
barefooted  friars,  long  years  ago.  Here  sparkling  eyes 
looked  forth  from  some  twilight  lattice  what  time  from 
the  street  below  arose  the  soft  notes  of  a serenading 
guitar.  As  to  the  sparkling  eyes  and  the  serenading 
lover  and  the  balconies,  these  are  not  gone  ; they  are 
imperishable  in  Mexico.  Here  is  a description  of  Mexico 
of  years  ago — the  Mexico  of  the  viceroys — which  I will 
translate  freely  from  the  description  of  a Mexican  writer 
of  to-day,  and  which  in  some  respects  might  almost 
describe  the  city  at  the  present  time  : “ Hail,  mediaeval 
city,  redolent  of  sentimental  recollections  and  romantic 
impressions  such  as  well  might  be  the  creation  of 
fantastic  romance  ! Clustered  with  monasteries  and 
convents,  turreted  dwellings  and  sombre  monuments, 
bathed  in  an  atmosphere  of  orisons  and  melancholy, 
threaded  by  foul  and  ill-paved  alleys,  made  for  crime, 
intrigue,  and  mystery;  where  buried  in  the  profundity  of 
night  love  and  wickedness  both  stalked  forth  ; strange 
temples  and  niches  lit  by  twinkling  lamps  before  the 
images  of  saints  ; recollections  of  diabolical  Inquisitorial 


THE  CATHEDRAL  OF  THE  CITY  OF  MEXICO. 


CITIES  AND  INSTITUTIONS  191 


rites — a romantic  and  fantastic  shroud,  dissipated  now, 
torn  into  shreds  by  the  iron  hand  of  destiny,  and 
banished  or  transfigured  by  the  torch  of  progress  ! ” 
As  has  been  said,  the  construction  of  the  houses 
of  Mexico  was  of  solid  type,  with  walls  such  as  might 
serve  for  fortresses  rather  than  dwellings,  and  when  from 
necessity,  some  old  building  is  demolished  it  can  only 
be  performed  by  the  aid  of  dynamite.  So  builded  the 
Spaniards,  and  their  work  will  outlast  the  more  ephemeral 
structures  of  to-day.  Indeed,  at  the  beginning  of  the 
colonial  period  and  throughout  the  sixteenth  century, 
the  buildings  actually  were  constructed  both  as  dwellings 
and  fortresses.  At  the  end  of  that  century  a greater 
refinement  of  architectural  art  appeared — as  a natural 
outcome  of  corresponding  conditions  in  Spain — in  the 
colonies.  The  great  cathedral  of  Mexico  was  con- 
structed, due  to  a mandate  of  Philip  II.  It  was  dedi- 
cated in  1667,  but  not  concluded  until  the  beginning 
of  the  nineteenth  century,  and  into  its  facade  enter 
the  Doric,  Ionic,  and  Corinthian  orders.  It  is  an 
exceedingly  handsome  building,  both  interiorily  and 
exteriorily,  and  it  stands  upon  the  spot  where  the  great 
Aztec  teocalli  stood — the  shrine  of  the  abominable  war- 
god  of  the  early  Mexicans.  The  edifice  stands  upon 
the  soft  subsoil  of  which  the  city's  foundation  is  com- 
posed, softness  which  has  caused  the  subsidence  of 
other  buildings  ; but  the  cathedral,  although  it  has  suffered 
somewhat  from  earthquake  shocks,  stands  firm  and  solid 
as  ever.  Valuable  art  treasures  exist  within,  among  the 
pictures  being  a Murillo,  and  possibly  a Velasquez. 
So  numerous  are  these  old  pictures  that  they  overlap 
each  other  upon  the  walls.  The  cathedral  is  nearly 
400  feet  long,  and  its  interior  rises  upon  twenty  splendid 
Doric  columns  for  180  feet,  whilst  the  apices  of  the  great 
towers  are  204  feet  above  the  pavement.  But  this 
splendid  temple — as  is  often  the  case  with  the  cathedrals 
of  Spanish-American  capitals — is  not  the  fashionable  or 
aristocratic  resort  of  Mexico’s  religious  people.  Never- 
theless, its  aisles  are  generally  thronged,  and  the  high- 


192 


MEXICO 


born  and  expensively  attired  lady  and  the  poor  peon 
woman,  with  her  modest  rebosa,  or  shawl,  may  be  seen 
side  by  side  kneeling  upon  its  knee-worn  floor,  whilst 
before  the  images  in  the  seven  chapels  of  its  aisles  there 
are  never  wanting  supplicating  figures,  nor  the  numerous 
little  written  supplications  pinned  upon  their  altar  rails. 

It  would  be  endless  to  describe  the  other  numerous 
ecclesiastical  buildings  and  temples  of  the  City  of  Mexico. 
Their  number  and  beauty  are  indicative  of  the  strength 
and  rooted  persistence  of  religion  and  monastic  orders 
in  New  Spain.  Among  the  principal  of  these  Orders 
and  the  dates  at  which  their  corresponding  habitations 
were  erected,  were  those  of  the  Franciscans,  1524  ; Domi- 
nicans, 1526;  Augustinians,  1533;  Jesuits,  1572;  Carme- 
lites, 1585  ; and  various  others,  with  numerous  convents. 

The  principal  commercial  and  fashionable  street  of 
Mexico  City  is  that  of  Plateros,  somewhat  narrow  and 
congested,  but  full  of  high-class  shops.  Thence  it  con- 
tinues along  Bucareli 1 and  the  broad  Avenida  de 
Juarez,  which  in  turn  is  continued  by  the  famous  Paseo 
de  la  Reforma,  a splendid  drive  and  promenade  of  several 
miles  in  length,  which  terminates  at  the  Castle  of  Chapul- 
tepec.  This  great  road  is  planted  throughout  its  length 
with  trees  and  adorned  with  a profusion — almost  too 
great — of  statues,  and  along  both  sides  are  private  houses 
of  modern  construction.  These  are  less  picturesque,  but 
more  comfortable,  than  the  old  Spanish-built  dwellings 
before  described,  although  at  times  somewhat  bizarre  in 
their  fa?ades,  with  a certain  nouveau  riche  air,  consequent 
upon  the  transition  period  of  Mexican  life  of  recent 
years.  The  beautiful  monument  and  statue  of  Guatemoc 
is  planted  in  this  avenue,  and  is  worthily  deemed  a 
successful  embodiment  of  Aztec  art  sculptured  by  modern 
chisels.  Upon  Sunday  mornings — the  fashionable  time 
of  serenata  or  promenade  concert — the  wealth  and  beauty 
of  the  capital  foregather  in  carriages  and  upon  foot  and 
listen  to  the  strains  of  the  band.  Here  we  may,  from  the 
seats  of  our  victoria,  observe  the  Mexican  upper  class 
1 Named  after  the  viceroy  who  caused  its  construction. 


CITIES  AND  INSTITUTIONS  193 


at  our — and  their — ease.  Hats  off  ! A private  carriage 
comes  driving  swiftly  by  ; its  coachman  attired  after  the 
English  fashion,  and  the  whole  equipage  of  similar 
character.  In  it  is  a well-dressed  gentleman  well  past 
the  middle  age,  with  dark  complexion  and  characteristic 
features.  It  is  the  citizen-President,  the  redoubtable 
General  Diaz,  and  the  universal  salutations  are  evi- 
dence of  his  popularity.  The  air  is  balmy  and  the 
warmth  of  the  sun  pleasant.  But  at  any  moment  these 
conditions  may  change,  and  a ruthless  dust-storm,  swept 
by  the  wind  from  the  dry  adobe  plains  surrounding  the 
city,  descend  upon  us,  the  fine  dust  covering  our  clothes 
and  bidding  us  direct  our  coachman  to  turn  his  horses' 
heads  towards  our  hotel.  This,  however,  is  not  frequent, 
but  when  it  does  occur  it  brings  a certain  sense  of 
disillusion  akin  to  that  felt  by  the  British  holiday-maker 
when  he  has  gone  down  to  an  English  seaside  place  to 
enjoy  the  balmy  air  and  finds  a bitter  east  wind  blowing! 

But  the  bull-fight — ha  ! the  bull-fight — takes  place  this 
— Sunday — afternoon,  for  this  is  the  Mexican  Sunday 
sport : a kind  of  licence,  possibly,  after  the  numerous 
misas  of  the  early  morning  ! We  have  purchased  our 
seat  in  the  sombra  of  the  great  bull-ring,  and  the  corrida 
is  about  to  begin.  Let  us  glance  round  the  assembly  of 
many  thousands  of  persons.  The  seats  of  the  great 
amphitheatre  are  divided  into  two  classes — the  sol  and 
the  sombra,  “sun"  and  “shade."  That  is  to  say,  that 
the  seats  in  the  shady  portion — for  the  structure  is  open 
to  the  sky — are  of  one  class,  and  command  a high  price 
of,  say,  ten  pesos  each,  whilst  the  sun-beat  portion  is  of 
an  inferior  class,  and  price,  say,  one  peso.  It  is  a sea  of 
faces  we  gaze  upon,  the  elite  of  the  city  in  the  sombra , 
and  the  lower  classes,  the  peones  and  others,  in  the  sol. 

The  arena  is  empty,  but  suddenly  a bugle-call  sounds 
from  the  judges’  platform,  and  the  picadores,  men  on 
horseback,  with  their  legs  protected  by  armour  and  bear- 
ing sharp-pointed  lances  in  their  hands,  enter  and  ride 
around  the  arena,  bowing  to  the  judges  and  assembled 
multitude,  who  receive  them  with  plaudits.  Again  a 

*4 


194 


MEXICO 


bugle-call,  and  the  sliding  doors  leading  from  the  corral 
are  opened,  and  a bull,  bounding  forward  therefrom, 
stops  short  a moment  and  eyes  the  assembled  multitude 
and  the  men  on  horseback  with  wrathful  yet  inquiring 
eye.  A moment  only.  Sniffing  the  air  and  lashing  his 
tail,  the  noble  bovine  rushes  forward  and  engages  the 
picadores ; the  little  pennants  of  the  national  colours, 
which,  attached  to  a barbed  point,  have  been  jabbed  into 
his  back  by  an  unseen  hand  as  he  passed  the  barrier, 
fluttering  in  the  wind  created  by  his  rush.  Furiously  he 
charges  the  picadores.  If  they  are  clever  they  goad  him 
to  madness  with  their  lances,  keeping  him  at  bay  ; if  he 
is  resolute  down  go  horse  and  man — both  results  tickling 
the  popular  fancy  immensely — and  those  frightful  horns 
are  buried  deep  in  the  bowels  of  the  unfortunate  steed, 
which,  maddened  with  agony  and  fright,  leaps  up  and 
tears  around  the  arena,  trampling  perhaps  upon  his  own 
entrails  which  have  gushed  forth  from  the  gaping  wound  ! 
At  times  the  wound  is  hastily  sewn  up,  and  the  un- 
fortunate horse,  with  a man  behind  him  with  a heavy 
whip,  another  tugging  at  the  bridle,  and  the  picador  on 
his  back  with  his  enormous  spurs,  forces  the  trembling 
brute  to  face  the  savage  bull  again,  whilst  the  audience 
once  more  roars  out  its  applause.  As  many  as  ten  horses 
are  killed  or  ruined  at  times  by  a single  bull,  who  returns 
again  and  again  to  plunge  his  horns  into  the  prostrate 
carcase  ere  it  is  dragged  away.  This  is  sport ! 

But  perhaps  the  bull  himself  is  faint-hearted  ! Then, 
indeed,  the  noble  Spanish  blood  of  the  audience  is 
aroused  to  fever  pitch.  (‘Otro  toro!  Otro  toro” — "Another 
bull  ! bring  another  bull  1 " — rises  from  a thousand 
throats.  Otherwise  the  other  acts  of  the  performance 
take  their  course,  and  the  banderilleros,  bull-fighters 
armed  with  short  gaudily  decorated  spears  with  barbed 
points,  come  on.  Some  “ pretty  " play  now  ensues,  the 
banderilleros  constantly  facing  the  bull  at  arm's  length 
with  the  object  of  gracefully  sticking  the  spears  or 
banderillas  in  the  neck  of  the  animal,  where,  if  success- 
ful, they  hang  dangling  as,  smarting  with  the  pain,  the 


AND  THE  ENTERING  BULL. 


CITIES  AND  INSTITUTIONS  195 


bull  tears  round  the  arena,  to  the  accompaniment  of  the 
delighted  roar  of  the  crowd.  This  scene  is  repeated 
again  and  again,  until  perhaps  several  pairs  of  banderillas 
are  depending  from  the  shoulders  of  the  maddened 
animal.  The  capeadores  have  not  been  idle,  and  the 
bull,  repeatedly  charging  them  and  meeting  only  the 
empty  flapping  of  the  capas — the  scarlet  cloaks  which 
the  bull-fighters  charged  with  this  office  wield — works 
himself  into  a paroxysm  of  rage,  which  must  be  seen  to 
be  understood.  Oftentimes  the  capeadores  are  severely 
injured  ; sometimes  killed  in  the  act  by  a terrific  stroke 
of  the  bull’s  horns. 

But  hark  ! once  more  a bugle-call,  strong  and  sonorous, 
from  the  judges'  box  ; the  well-known  notes  which  call 
the  espada  to  his  task  ; the  last  act  in  the  drama — for 
drama  it  is.  The  espada  is  the  most  famous  bull-fighter 
of  all.  His  salary  is  a princely  one ; his  reputation 
extends  over  two  continents,  from  Old  Madrid  to  Old 
Mexico.  He  is  the  great  star  in  all  that  richly-dressed 
galaxy  of  toreros — for  their  gorgeous  silver  and  gold 
spangled  attire  baffles  description — and  all  his  com - 
paiieros  are  but  lesser  lights,  paling  before  his  name  and 
powers.  And  now  the  band,  which  has  hitherto  sent 
forth  joyous  music,  plays  a sad  and  mournful  air.  The 
espada  takes  the  sword  from  an  attendant  and  examines 
and  curves  it  with  critical  and  expert  eye.  Then,  taking 
off  his  gold  and  silver-embroidered  cocked-hat,  he  bows 
low  towards  the  judges  and  to  the  fair  ladies  of  the 
sombra  ; and  in  fitting  phrase  “ dedicates  " the  stroke  he 
is  about  to  perform  to  them.  Or  otherwise,  with  his 
hand  upon  his  heart,  he  turns  towards  the  occupants  of 
the  sol,  and  again  bowing  low  dedicates  the  coming 
stroke  and  the  doomed  bull  thus:  “ Al  Querido  Pueblo  ! ” — 
"To  the  beloved  people”  ! A hush  falls  upon  the  great 
assembly  : a pin  might  be  heard  to  drop  : the  bull,  who 
during  these  preliminaries — somewhat  fatigued  but  full 
of  life  and  anger — has  been  standing  in  the  arena  with 
his  attention  diverted  by  the  capeadores,  is  now  left  to  face 
his  doom  at  the  hands  of  the  expert  espada.  Bull  and 


196 


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man  slowly  approach,  eyeing  each  other  as  those  whose 
quarrel  is  to  the  death,  whilst  the  notes  of  the  music 
sound  low  and  mournful.  Within  arm’s  length  the 
espada  extends  his  shining  blade.  He  glances  along  it; 
the  bull  leaps  forward  to  charge  ; there  is  a swift  thrust  ; 
the  blade  goes  home  in  that  fatal  spot  which  only  the 
expert  knows ; and  tottering,  swaying,  and  falling,  the 
noble  bull  leans  over  and  falls  prone  to  the  dust.  He 
raises  his  head  with  a last  effort ; the  espada  rushes  for- 
ward, places  his  foot  upon  the  prostrate  neck,  and,  exert- 
ing a mighty  strength,  draws  forth  the  scarlet,  dripping 
blade,  and  a crimson  stream  of  life-blood  spurts  forth 
from  the  wound,  whilst  the  animal,  making  “ the  sign  of 
the  cross”  with  its  forefoot  upon  the  sand,  lowers  his 
noble  crest — dead  ! 

Then  are  the  bounds  of  pandemonium  let  loose.  How 
the  audience  of  the  sol  shrieks  and  cheers  ! Hats,  sticks, 
cloaks,  belts,  even  money,  are  thrown  into  the  arena  like 
hail,  and  nothing  is  too  good  for  the  successful  espada 
and  the  idol  of  the  moment.  Even  the  dignified  sombra 
shouts  itself  hoarse,  and  at  times  showers  bank-notes  and 
jewellery  down,  and  perhaps — let  it  be  whispered  low, 
for  it  is  not  unknown  ! — a billet-doux  or  papelito  for  the 
brave  torero  from  some  newly-created  female  admirer. 
Grave  gentlemen  in  frock-coats  and  ladies  in  elegant 
attire,  on  the  one  hand,  discuss  the  points  of  the  enter- 
tainment, whilst  the  red  serapes  of  the  peones  and  pelados 
and  their  great  sombreros  rush  animatedly  to  and  fro. 
The  band  plays,  the  crowd  pours  into  the  street,  and  the 
long  shadows  fall  from  the  blue  Mexican  sky  across  the 
dust  of  their  departure,  whilst  a team  of  horses  drag 
forth  the  quivering  flesh  of  the  vanquished  bull  to  the 
corral,  and  the  Sabbath  Day  draws  to  its  close. 

The  Mexican  upper  and  middle  class  share  the  general 
Spanish-American  characteristic  of  preference  for  life  in 
their  cities.  Expeditions  into  the  country  are  matters  to 
be  avoided  if  possible.  The  gilded  youth  of  the  capital 
and  members  of  polite  society  generally,  do  not  like  to 
leave  the  conveniences  of  good  pavements,  restaurants, 


CITIES  AND  INSTITUTIONS  197 


fashionable  bars  and  clubs  and  the  like,  and  to  venture 
into  the  hot  sun  or  cold  winds  of  the  country  regions. 
It  is  true,  however,  that  there  is  a certain  exodus  to  their 
haciendas  of  the  upper-class  families  in  the  season  cor- 
responding thereto  ; but  the  love  of  the  country  for  its 
own  sake,  or  for  sport,  exercise,  or  exploration,  as  under- 
stood by  Englishmen,  is  unknown.  There  are  no  country 
houses,  as  in  Great  Britain,  where  wealthy  people  reside 
because  they  prefer  it ; for  the  Mexican  prefers  to  live  in 
the  main  streets  of  his  cities,  the  great  doorway  of  his 
patio  and  his  barred  windows  opening  and  looking  imme- 
diately on  to  the  streets. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  wealthy  inhabitant  of  the  capital 
often  lives  in  the  quaint  and  beautiful  towns  adjacent 
thereto,  and  reached  by  rail  or  electric  car  with  a few 
miles’  journey.  Such  places  are  Tacubaya,  San  Angel, 
Tlalpam,  and  others,  and  here  spacious  and  picturesque 
stone  houses — some  of  considerable  age — surrounded  by 
luxuriant  gardens  where  oranges,  pomegranates,  and  other 
semi-tropical  flora  lend  shade  and  beauty,  attest  the 
wealth  and  taste  of  their  inhabitants.  Serene  and  old- 
world  is  the  atmosphere  surrounding  these  “ palaces  ” 
— for  some  are  worthy  of  this  designation — and  with 
their  environment  of  summer  sky  and  glorious  landscape 
they  form  real  oases  of  that  romantic  and  luxurious 
character  which  the  foreigner  in  his  fancy  has  attributed 
to  Mexico,  but  which  he  fails  to  encounter  in  the  newer 
quarters  of  the  city. 

To  treat  at  much  length  of  the  numerous  institutions 
and  buildings  of  the  capital  would  be  to  fill  a volume. 
The  parks,  monuments,  museums,  art  gallery,  public 
library,  theatres,  hygienic  establishments,  hospitals, 
prisons,  new  drainage  - system,  pure  water-supply, 
national  palaces  and  public  buildings,  colleges,  schools, 
clubs  : mining,  engineering,  medical  science,  and  art 
institutions  : all  mark  the  character  of  the  people  as 
lovers  of  progress,  art,  and  science,  with  strongly 
developed  literary  and  artistic  perceptions  and  idealistic 
aims,  which  they  are  striving  to  apply  to  the  good  of 


198 


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their  people,  as  far  as  circumstances  render  it  possible. 
All  the  machinery  of  State  affairs  and  municipal  and 
social  life  are  excellently  ordered  theoretically,  and  in 
time  may  be  expected  to  work  out  in  general  practice  to 
a fuller  extent. 

Education  is  provided  for  by  compulsory  primary  in- 
struction throughout  the  Republic,  and  by  preparatory 
and  professional  schools  and  colleges  in  the  capital,  all 
of  which  are  free.  The  principal  of  these  latter  in  the 
capital  are  the  Preparatory  College,  or  High  School, 
providing  a general  curriculum  ; the  College  of  Juris- 
prudence, devoted  to  law  and  sociology ; the  Medical 
College,  to  medicine  and  kindred  subjects  ; the  School 
of  Engineering,  whether  civil,  mining,  electrical,  or  all 
other  branches  of  that  profession,  which  is  looked  upon 
as  a very  important  one  ; School  of  Agriculture  ; School 
of  Commerce ; School  of  Fine  Arts ; Conservatory  of 
Music ; Schools  of  Arts  and  Trades,  for  boys  and  girls 
respectively  ; Normal  Colleges,  for  men  and  women 
respectively.  All  these  educational  institutions  are  sup- 
ported by  the  Federal  Government  in  the  capital,  by 
which  it  is  seen  that  the  Mexican  nation  is  holding 
forth  good  opportunity  to  its  citizens  for  acquiring  know- 
ledge. Notwithstanding  these  facilities  the  education  of 
the  lower  classes  proceeds  but  slowly,  and  at  present 
less  than  13  per  cent,  of  the  entire  population  can  read 
and  write.  It  is  to  be  recollected,  however,  that  the 
great  bulk  of  the  population  consist  of  the  peones  and 
the  Indians,  and  the  conditions  of  the  life  of  these 
render  the  acquisition  of  education  by  them  often  im- 
possible. Knowledge  cannot  else  but  slowly  unfold  for 
the  indigenous  peoples  of  Spanish-America,  weighed 
down  as  they  are  by  conditions  of  race,  caste,  and  in- 
herited and  imposed  social  burdens. 

Prominent  among  the  literary,  scientific,  and  art  insti- 
tutions of  Mexico  City  are  the  Geographical  Society,  the 
oldest  of  all,  founded  in  1833;  the  Geological  Society; 
the  Association  of  Engineers  and  Architects  ; Society  of 
Natural  History ; the  five  Academies  of  Medicine, 


MEXICAN  STREET  SCENE  : A PULQUE  SHOP  WITH  ARTISTICALLY-PAINTED  EXTERIOR. 


CITIES  AND  INSTITUTIONS  199 


Jurisprudence,  Physical  and  Natural  Science,  Spanish 
Language,  Social  Science,  respectively  ; also  the  Antonio 
Alzate  Scientific  Society  and  the  Pedro  Escobedo  Medical 
Society.  Of  museums  and  galleries  are  the  Academy  of 
San  Carlos,  with  fine  specimens  of  European  and  Mexican 
art,  among  the  former  of  which  are  works  by  Velasquez, 
Murillo,  Ribera,  and  others  attributed  to  Rubens, 
Leonardo  da  Vinci,  Van  Dyck,  &c.  The  National 
Museum,  which  was  founded  in  1865,  is  an  important 
and  interesting  institution,  in  which  are  preserved  the 
famous  archaeological  and  ethnological  objects  and 
collections  illustrative  of  prehistoric  Mexico.  It  was 
founded  in  1865,  and  attracts  Mexican  and  foreign 
visitors  to  the  annual  number  of  nearly  a quarter  of  a 
million.  The  famous  prehistoric  Calendar  Stone  is  pre- 
served here.1  There  are  various  other  museums  devoted 
to  special  subjects.  Of  libraries,  the  Biblioteca  National 
ranks  first — a handsome  building  with  365,000  volumes 
for  public  use.  The  building  is  a massive  stone  structure, 
and  was  originally  built  for  a church.  A garden  sur- 
rounds it,  and  upon  the  stone  pillars  of  the  enclosure 
are  busts  of  Mexicans  and  Aztecs  famous  in  history,  as 
Ixtlilxochitl,  Tezozomoc,  Nezahualcoyotl,  the  king-poet ; 
Clavijero,  the  historian,  and  others.  Other  libraries  are 
maintained  by  various  museums  and  professions. 

There  are  some  sixty  or  more  Catholic  churches  in  the 
city,  and  numerous  other  buildings  formerly  of  ecclesi- 
astical purpose.  Most  of  these  were  built  during  the 
colonial  regime,  the  Spanish  Renaissance  being  the  pre- 
vailing style.  Several  Protestant  places  of  worship  exist 
— religious  observance  being  absolutely  free — and  these 
include  Episcopalians,  Presbyterians,  Methodists,  Bap- 
tists, and  others.  The  religious  census,  made  in  1900, 
of  the  whole  of  the  Republic  gave  thirteen  and  a half 
million  persons  declaring  themselves  as  Catholics,  about 
52,000  Protestants,  1,500  Mormons,  2,000  Buddhists,  and 
about  19,000  who  made  no  statement  of  religious  faith. 

There  are  some  twelve  hospitals,  asylums,  and  kindred 
1 Also  the  Aztec  sacrificial  stone. 


200 


MEXICO 


establishments  for  the  afflicted,  in  the  capital  or  Federal 
districts,  as  public  charities,  and  eight  of  a private  nature, 
including  the  benevolent  societies  and  hospitals  of  the 
various  foreign  colonies,  as  the  Americans,  Spanish,  and 
others.  Among  the  semi-charitable  or  benevolent 
institutions  must  be  mentioned  the  famous  Monte  de 
Piedad,  or  National  Pawnshop,  which,  as  its  name  implies, 
carries  on  the  business  of  such  for  the  benefit  of  poor 
people,  who  thus  avoid  the  usurious  rates  of  interest  of 
private  pawnbrokers.  This  worthy  institution  wasjfounded 
in  1775,  by  Terreros,  Count  of  Regia,  of  mining  fame, 
and  during  a single  month  of  190 7 the  establishment 
and  its  branches  loaned  money  to  the  people  against 
articles  to  the  amount  of  nearly  half  a million  pesos.  Of 
penal  establishments  the  Penitentiary,  opened  in  1900,  at 
a cost  of  about  two  and  a half  million  pesos,  ranks  first.  It 
has  a strict  scientific  regime  for  its  inmates,  with  more 
than  seven  hundred  cells  for  convicts  and  others. 

Some  of  the  public  buildings  are  good  types  of 
structure  of  the  colonial  period.  Among  these  is  the 
Palacio  Nacional,  spacious  and  massive,  but  monotonous 
and  plain  in  its  outward  appearance.  Here  the  Govern- 
ment business  is  transacted,  and  this  edifice  occupies  a 
whole  side  of  the  Zocalo,  or  Plaza  de  Armas,  with  a long 
arcade  of  the  characteristic  portales , or  arches,  facing  the 
the  square,  above  the  footpath.  It  is  of  historic  interest, 
having  sheltered  nearly  all  Mexican  rulers  from  Monte- 
zuma onwards,  Cortes,  the  viceroys,  Iturbide,  Maximilian, 
and  all  the  Presidents  in  succession.  The  Palacio 
Municipal  is  a somewhat  similar  structure  also  facing  the 
plaza,  and  not  far  away  is  the  handsome  building  known 
as  Mineria — the  School  of  Mines — which  was  founded  by 
royal  edict  in  1813.  This  building,  unfortunately,  has  sub- 
sided somewhat  into  the  soft  subsoil.  Within  its  spacious 
hall  an  enormous  meteorite  confronts  the  view,  brought 
there  from  a distant  part  of  the  country,  entire.  The 
Geological  Institute  is  another  public  building  of  kindred 
nature.  The  famous  Castle  of  Chapultepec,  embowered 
in  its  cypresses,  and  surrounded  by  its  handsome  park,  is 


CITIES  AND  INSTITUTIONS  201 


at  a distance  of  two  miles  away  along  the  Paseo  de  la 
Reforma,  before  described,  and  serves  both  as  a summer 
residence  for  the  President  and  as  a military  academy. 
Around  it  is  a public  park.  Here  it  was  that  the  heroic 
incident  of  the  American  War  took  place,  of  the  young 
Mexican  military  cadets  and  the  national  standard,  which 
has  been  touched  upon  in  the  historical  chapter.  A 
monument  is  erected  here  to  their  memory.  A new  post- 
office  was  opened  in  the  capital,  in  1907,  at  a cost  of  three 
million  pesos,  to  cope  with  the  growing  postal  business  of 
the  Republic.  Among  the  numerous  public  squares  and 
gardens  of  the  city  is  the  Alameda,  dating  from  the  time 
of  Spanish  rule.  Six  theatres  of  good  class  and  other 
minor  ones  attest  the  play-going  inclinations  of  the 
Mexicans,  and  a grand  opera-house  is  in  course  of  con- 
struction out  of  the  national  exchequer,  which  is  designed 
to  bear  comparison  with  that  of  Paris.  The  Governments 
of  Mexico,  like  those  of  Spanish-America  generally,  con- 
sider it  a natural  part  of  their  function  to  support  popular 
amusements  of  a refined  nature.  The  foreigner  might 
feel  called  on  to  remark  that  this  laudable  motive  might 
well  be  brought  to  bear  upon  bull-fights,  lotteries,  and 
other  institutions  of  a kindred  nature  ! The  chief  evil  of 
the  bull-fight  is  that  it  keeps  alive  the  love  of  the  sight  of 
bloodshed,  which  is  naturally  too  strong  in  the  Mexican 
peon  without  artificial  stimulation,  and  its  brutalising  ten- 
dency must  go  far  to  offset  the  good  effects  of  education 
and  musical  entertainment.  As  for  the  lotteries,  they 
constitute  a bad  moral;  the  petty  gambling  and  principle 
of  hoping  to  obtain  something  for  nothing  is  evil,  and 
they  are  banned  by  all  truly  civilised  nations. 

The  chief  club  and  sport  centre  of  the  wealthy  Mexicans 
is  the  Jockey  Club,  in  a handsome  old  building  in  the 
plaza  of  Guardiola,  and  it  is  considered  a mark  of  distinc- 
tion by  the  foreigner  to  be  invited  as  visiting  member  to 
this  institution.  The  British  and  the  American  Colonies 
each  have  comfortable  club-houses,  the  Spanish  their 
casino,  and  the  French  and  Germans  their  respective 
centres. 


202 


MEXICO 


The  Army  of  Mexico  consists  of  some  28,000  officers 
and  men,  efficient  and  disciplined,  on  a footing  far 
superior  to  the  dilapidated  soldiery  that  the  traveller 
generally  observes  in,  and  ascribes  to,  Spanish-America. 
The  rank  and  file  have  that  remarkable  power  of  per- 
forming long  marches  and  heavy  work  on  short  rations, 
which  characterises  the  Spanish-American  native  soldier 
in  times  of  stress.  Their  officers  receive  an  excellent 
training,  and  the  military  schools  are  considered  to  take 
high  rank  as  such.  Every  citizen,  by  law,  is  obliged  to 
serve  in  the  army,  but  this  is  not  necessarily  carried  out, 
and  needless  to  say  the  upper  class,  except  as  officers, 
do  not  figure  therein.  A picturesque  and  remarkably 
efficient  body  of  men  are  the  rurales,  exceedingly  expert 
horsemen,  who  range  the  country,  and  whose  work  of 
the  last  few  decades  has  entirely  wiped  out  the  prevalent 
highway-robbery  of  earlier  years.  Mexico’s  Navy  is  small : 
she  does  not  require  a large  one,  and  it  consists  at  present 
of  two  training  ships,  five  gunboats,  and  two  transports. 

The  cost  of  living  in  the  capital,  like  all  other  cities, 
varies  much  according  to  style,  but  in  general  it  may  be 
considered  high.  Even  native  produce  is  not  cheap 
necessarily,  whilst  imported  goods  are  very  expensive. 
Correspondingly  high  is  the  rent  of  houses  or  flats.  The 
houses  of  Mexico  City  are  very  generally  constructed  and 
let  as  viviendas,  or  flats,  usually  of  about  six  rooms  to 
each  floor,  a time-honoured  arrangement  among  all 
classes.  Such  a flat,  according  to  its  position,  costs  from 
£5  to  .£15  per  month;  and  a private  house,  such  as  in 
England  would  rent  at,  say,  £ 200  per  annum,  or,  say, ^300 
in  the  United  States,  brings  .£50  per  month  in  Mexico 
City,  whilst  the  rents  in  the  suburbs,  and  those  of 
business  establishments  are  scarcely  less.  Such  property 
is  always  expected  to  yield  12  to  15  per  cent,  per  annum 
upon  the  investment.  The  values  of  landed  property  or 
real  estate  in  the  city  have  risen  in  an  unprecedented 
manner  of  late  years,  from  a few  cents  per  square  yard  a 
few  years  ago  to  30s.  or  50s.  per  square  yard  at  present, 
and  they  are  still  rising.  The  cost  of  building  is  also 


MEXICAN  ARTILLERY  : A WAYSIDE  ENCAMPMENT, 


CITIES  AND  INSTITUTIONS  203 


exceedingly  high.  These  conditions  refer,  of  course,  to 
the  capital.  Elsewhere  values  are  often  exceedingly  low. 

The  capital  and  the  Federal  District,  which  is  that  con- 
taining the  city  and  its  suburban  towns,  are  administered 
by  Ayuntamientos,  or  Municipal  Councils,  with  Boards  of 
Health  and  Department  of  Public  Works.  The  city  is 
policed  by  mounted  and  unmounted  gendarmes,  a total  of 
some  2,300,  and  travellers  may  bear  witness  to  the  vigilance 
and  courtesy  of  these  officials.  Whilst  the  ordinary  gen- 
darmes are  recruited  from  the  Indian  class  largely,  they  are 
efficient.  The  British  traveller  finds  them  as  obliging  as 
London  police,  in  their  more  humble  sphere,  and  the 
American  is  startled  at  the  possibilities  of  official  courtesy 
after  the  rude  and  aggressive  policemen  of  the  United 
States.  The  water-supply  of  the  city  belongs  to  the  Federal 
authorities,  and  is  being  augmented  from  the  springs  of 
Xochimilco,  as  the  present  amount  per  capita  of  137  litres 
is  not  sufficient.  The  new  works  will  ensure  a per  capita 
supply  of  400  litres,  for  a population  of  550,000  inhabitants. 
The  lighting  of  the  city  and  suburbs  is  by  electricity,  and  is 
efficiently  performed,  giving  the  capital  the  reputation  of 
being  an  excellently  illumined  community.  A Canadian 
Company,  the  Mexican  Light  and  Power  Company,  holds 
the  contract  for  this  work.  The  drainage  and  sewerage 
of  the  capital  form  a fine  modern  sanitation  system, 
which  has  recently  been  completed  at  a cost  of  nearly  six 
million  pesos;  and  these  works,  in  connection  with  the 
great  drainage  canal  and  tunnel  already  described,  form 
one  of  the  most  perfect  systems  in  the  world,  and  a point 
of  interest  to  visitors. 

The  system  of  electric  tramways  embodies  more  than 
100  miles  of  line,  and  gives  an  efficient  urban  service  as  well 
as  furnishing  communication  with  the  suburbs  and  resi- 
dential towns,  as  Tacubaya,  San  Angel,  Tlalpam,  Guada- 
lupe, and  others.  There  are  still  some  40  miles  of  mule-car 
in  operation,  such  as  a few  years  ago  existed  over  the 
whole  system.  The  mules  were  kept  going  at  a gallop  over 
these  lines  by  the  incessant  thwacking  and  shouts  of  the 
drivers,  and  the  modern  system,  if  less  picturesque,  is 


•204 


MEXICO 


more  humane  and  speedier.  The  Mexicans,  both  upper 
and  lower  class,  are  inveterate  travellers — many  of  the 
latter  simply  journey  on  the  cars  for  amusement — and, 
picturesque  and  ill-smelling,  they  crowd  the  third-class 
coaches  on  every  journey.  In  the  year  1907  a total  of 
nearly  65  million  passengers  were  carried.  The  enterprise 
is  in  the  hands  of  Canadians — The  Mexico  Tramways 
Company,  in  connection  with  the  Mexico  Electric  Tram- 
ways, Limited,  a British  corporation.  The  great  plaza,  the 
Zocalo,  presents  an  animated  scene  with  the  numerous 
starting  and  stopping  cars  on  their  incessant  journey  ; 
and  the  figures  of  the  saints  upon  the  cathedral  facade 
gaze  stonily  down  upon  the  electric  flashes  from  the 
trolley  line,  whilst  the  native  peon  and  Indian  on  the  cars 
has  not  yet  ceased  wondering  what  power  it  is  “that 
makes  them  go  ” ! 

Life  in  the  City  of  Mexico  for  the  foreigner  contains 
much  of  varied  interest  and  colour,  although  he  or  she 
will  have  to  support  with  philosophy  much  that  is 
incident  upon  its  peculiar  character.  The  hotels  often 
leave  a good  deal  to  be  desired,  yet  they  are  sufficient 
for  the  transient  visitor,  and  the  more  permanent  resident 
prefers  to  take  up  his  abode  in  a hired  house.  The 
former  palace  of  Iturbide,  a building  of  handsome 
architectural  form,  with  a patio  of  noteworthy  style,  forms 
one  of  the  principal  hotels.  It  has  been  shown  that  the 
Republic  contains  a considerable  foreign  population, 
and  in  addition  there  is  a constantly  floating  one,  brought 
about  largely  by  American  tourists  from  the  United 
States.  The  Americans  and  Spaniards  are  by  far  the 
most  numerous  among  the  foreign  element,  and  Great 
Britain  is  represented  mainly  by  the  fine  works  of  public 
utility  constructed  by  British  contractors,  and  by  other 
railway  and  banking  interests.  British  commercial 
enterprise  in  Mexico  has  almost  entirely  fallen  away  of 
recent  years,  and  has  been  supplanted  by  American  and 
German  activity.  Various  reasons  are  assigned  to  this 
loss  of  a once  paramount  commercial  pre-eminence  ; 
possibly  the  real  one  lies  in  the  diverting  of  British 


CITIES  AND  INSTITUTIONS  205 


enterprise  to  various  parts  of  the  British  Empire,  and 
also  to  a slackening  of  activity  from  the  great  centres  of 
British  industry  as  regards  foreign  lands,  which  seems  to 
be  apparent  of  recent  years.  Capital  does  not  venture 
forth  so  easily  as  it  did  some  decades  ago,  from  the 
shores  of  Albion,  due  to  a variety  of  causes. 

A noticeable  feature  of  Mexican  business  life  in  the 
capital  is  what  may  be  termed  the  Anglo-Saxon — or 
rather  Anglo-American — invasion,  for  of  Britons  there 
are  but  few  in  comparison  with  the  ubiquitous  American 
from  the  United  States;  and  smart,  capable-looking 
men  from  New  York,  or  more  generally  from  Chicago,  or 
Kansas  City,  or  St.  Louis,  or  other  great  commercial 
centres  of  the  middle  west,  have  set  up  numerous  offices 
and  enterprises.  They  have  brought  a good  deal  of 
wealth  into  the  country,  in  the  form  of  capital  invested 
in  mines  and  railways,  and  Mexico  has  welcomed  her 
primos,  or  cousins  from  the  North,  both  for  their  gold 
and  for  their  spirit  of  enterprise.  The  class  of  American 
business-man  who  goes  to  Mexico  has  much  improved 
of  late  years;  and  these  hijos  del  Tio  Samuel,  “sons  of 
Uncle  Sam,"  as  the  Mexicans  sometimes  jocularly  dub 
them,  are  more  representative  of  their  country  than  the 
doubtful  element  of  a few  years  since.  The  junction  of 
these  two  tides  of  humanity  which  roll  together  but 
never  mingle — the  Americans  and  the  Mexicans — affords 
much  matter  for  interesting  observation.  The  American 
influence  on  Mexican  civilisation  is  partly  good,  partly 
bad,  but  it  cannot  yet  be  considered  more  than  a drop 
in  the  ocean  of  change  in  the  deep-seated  Spanish 
individuality  of  the  Mexican  people. 

To  sum  up  a mental  impression  of  Mexico  City,  there 
rise  before  us  the  old  and  the  new  on  the  threshold  of 
change  ; the  antique,  the  quaint,  and  the  refined,  pressed 
close  by  the  modern,  the  commercial,  and  the  cheap  : 
the  hand  of  a haughty  Castilian  hidalgo-spirit  held 
forth  to  the  “cute”  and  business  Yankee.  But  there  is 
a great  breach  yet  between  the  Chicago  “ drummer,"  or 
the  American  land-shark ; and  the  Mexican  gentleman. 


206 


MEXICO 


Here  is  a rich  and  developing  soil,  with — perhaps — some 
benefit  for  the  masses  : a new  civilisation  in  the  making  ; 
a new  people  being  fashioned  from  an  old  ; a plutocratic 
bulk  trailing  off  into  a mass  of  white  and  red-clothed  poor 
peones  and  swarthy  Indians.  Beautiful  women,  serenatas, 
bull-fights,  courtesy,  azure  sky — all  have  inscribed  upon 
the  traveller's  mind  a pleasing  and  semi-romantic  im- 
pression, a conjunto,  whose  interest  and  attraction,  with 
perchance  a regretful  note,  time  does  not  easily  dispel. 


CHAPTER  XI 


MEXICAN  LIFE  AND  TRAVEL 


Travel  and  description — Mexican  cities — Guadalajara — Lake  Chapala — 
Falls  of  Juanacatlan — The  Pacific  slope — Colima — Puebla — Cities  of 
the  Great  Plateau — Guanajuato — Chihuahua — The  Apaches — The 
peones — Comparison  with  Americans — Peon  labour  system — Mode  of 
living — Houses  of  the  peon  class — Diet — Tortillas  and  frijoles — Chilli 
— Pulque — Habits  of  the  peon  class — Their  religion — The  wayside 
crosses  and  their  tragedies— Ruthless  political  executions — The  fallen 
cross — Similarity  to  Bible  scenes — Peon  superstitions — The  ignis 
fatuis,  or  relacion — Caves  and  buried  treasure — Prehistoric  Mexican 
religion — The  Teocallis — Comparison  with  modern  religious  systems 
— Philosophical  considerations. 


The  City  of  Mexico,  typical  as  it  is  of  Mexican  people 
and  their  life,  by  no  means  embodies  or  monopolises  the 
whole  interest  of  the  country,  and  the  mere  tourist  who, 
having  paid  a flying  visit  thereto,  thinks  thereby  to  gain 
much  idea  of  the  nation  as  a whole,  will  naturally  fall 
short  in  his  observations.  We  must  depart  thence,  and 
visit  the  other  handsome  and  interesting  centres  of 
Mexico's  life  and  population,  and  sojourn  for  a season 
among  her  people,  and  observe  something  of  the  “ short 
and  simple  annals”  of  her  labouring  classes.  During 
the  several  years  which  it  fell  to  my  lot  to  pass  in  this 
interesting  land  the  various  phases  of  Spanish-American 
life  as  portrayed  in  Mexico  were  often  brought  vividly 
before  me,  and  indeed  it  is  only  after  arduous  journey- 
ings  in  a land  of  this  nature  that  pictures  of  its  life  and 
topography  can  be  truly  portrayed. 

The  general  type  of  Mexican  cities  has  been  set 

forth  in  the  former  chapter  : their  distinctive  Spanish- 

207 


208 


MEXICO 


American  character  and  atmosphere.  The  city  next  in 
importance  to  the  capital  is  Guadalajara,  in  the  State  of 
Jalisco.  This  is  a really  handsome  community,  with 
fine  public  buildings ; and  it  forms  a centre  of  Mexican 
civilisation  and  education  of  which  its  inhabitants  are 
proud  : not  without  sufficient  reason.  The  people  of 
Guadalajara  love  to  term  their  city  the  “ The  Queen  of 
the  West,”  for  the  city  lies  upon  the  Pacific  watershed, 
although  the  Western  Sierra  Madre  intervenes  between 
her  and  the  great  ocean.  The  population  of  Guadalajara 
numbers  rather  more  than  101,000,  and  the  city  is 
famed  for  its  public  monuments  and  institutions,  religious 
and  secular.  The  elevation  above  sea-level  of  5,175  feet 
insures  an  equable  climate,  tending  to  a spring-like 
warmth,  yet  of  an  exhilarating  character,  due  to  the 
breezes  which  sweep  over  the  broad  valley  in  which  it  is 
situated.  The  region  around  the  city  is  one  of  varied 
topographical  interest.  To  the  south-east  is  the  great 
Lake  Chapala,  eighty  miles  long — a sheet  of  water  of 
marked  scenic  beauty — and  from  its  broad  bosom  the 
Santiago  river  flows  upon  its  two-hundred-mile  journey 
to  the  Pacific,  near  Tepic,  of  Toltec  fame,  but  first 
forming  the  well-known  falls  of  Juanacatlan.  Surround- 
ing this  region  are  great  plains  of  wheat-growing  capacities, 
and  indeed  this  State  has  been  termed  the  “ Granary  of 
Mexico.”  The  railway  carries  us  westwardly  to  Ameca, 
a picturesque  town,  and  thence  the  saddle  is  our  means 
of  conveyance.  Far  down  towards  the  Pacific  coast, 
and  southwardly,  one  of  my  journeys  took  me,  over 
vast  stretches  of  plains  and  among  timber-clad  hills  : 
timber-clad,  as  the  devouring  wood-burning  locomotive 
has  not  yet  reached  so  far,  and  the  stump-studded 
lands  as  along  the  railway  are  not  encountered.  Further 
on  are  the  abrupt  precipices  of  the  Pacific  slope,  and 
above  them  rises  the  high  volcano  of  Colima  with  its 
everlasting  crest  of  smoke,  breaking  in  leaden  spirals 
against  the  sky  by  day,  and  illuminating  the  night  scenery 
of  haciendas  and  palm  groves  with  its  fitful  flames. 
Colima  is  the  only  active  Mexican  volcano  at  present. 


CITY  OF  GUADALAJARA  : INTERIOR  OF  THE  CATHEDRAL. 


[To  face  p.  208. 


MEXICAN  LIFE  AND  TRAVEL  209 


In  quite  a different  direction  is  the  city  of  Puebla,  one 
of  the  foremost  of  the  State  capitals,  lying  within  a short 
distance  by  rail  from  the  City  of  Mexico.  This  city  has 
acquired  a considerable  commercial  and  industrial  im- 
portance of  recent  years,  largely  due  to  the  local 
cotton-manufacturing  industries  and  general  flourishing 
agricultural  resources.  The  city  is  not,  however,  spoilt 
by  the  manufacturing  element  as  regards  its  character 
and  appearance,  and  the  cleanliness  of  its  streets  and 
general  beauty  and  severity,  in  their  various  fields,  of  its 
church  and  domestic  architecture  charm  the  traveller, 
and  elicit  admiration  from  those  who  had  expected  a less 
advanced  community.  The  cathedral  is  one  of  those 
handsome  colonial  structures  for  which  Mexico  is  famous. 
The  elevation  of  the  city  is  slightly  over  7,000  feet  above 
sea-level,  with  a corresponding  excellence  of  climatic 
conditions,  whilst  the  general  environment  and  azure 
tropic  sky  form  a whole  which  remains  pleasingly  upon 
the  memory.  A busy  population  of  more  than  93,000 
people  is  supported  in  the  city,  mainly  by  the  natural 
products  and  manufactures  of  its  environment.  Over- 
looked by  the  picturesque  hills  where  the  struggle  for 
independence  was  raged  in  the  historic  years  of  last 
century,  and  sentinelled  to  the  north-west  by  the  two 
volcanic  peaks  of  snow-crowned  altitude,  Popocatepetl 
and  Ixtaccihuatl,  the  city  of  Puebla  is  of  much  interest. 

To  the  north,  and  of  a somewhat  different  character 
as  regards  their  environment  and  population,  are  the 
cities  along  the  Great  Plateau,  especially  those  upon  the 
mineral  belt,  although  they  bear  the  inseparable  stamp  of 
the  Spanish-American  people  and  their  life.  Some  of 
these  cities  sprang  to  being  upon  the  very  flanks  of  the 
mountains  which  give  them  their  source  of  life — silver — 
centuries  ago.  Among  these  great  towns  of  the  plateau, 
especially  those  whose  wealth  and  population  have 
accrued  from  or  depend  upon  the  business  of  delving 
into  the  earth  for  minerals,  is  Guanajuato,  pictur- 
esquely situated  among  the  foothills  of  a mountain  range 
known  as  the  Sierra  of  Santa  Rosa.  Its  elevation  above 

15 


210 


MEXICO 


sea-level  is  6,850  feet,  and  the  dry,  clear  atmosphere,  bright 
hues  of  buildings  and  churches,  sloping  hills  with  houses 
and  gardens  perforce  terraced  thereon,  with  the  brilliant 
sunlight  overhead,  form  a characteristic  Mexican  centre 
of  industry.  The  houses  of  Guanajuato  are  built  of  a 
species  of  freestone,  which  as  a fine-grained  tufa  caps  the 
Sierra  in  places  here,  and  is  known  as  cantera.  It  is 
easily  worked  and  hardens  on  weathering,  and  its  use 
gives  a well-constructed  appearance  to  the  streets.  I 
have  noted  the  same  aspect  in  other  Spanish-American 
countries,  notably  the  Peruvian  city  of  Arequipa.  Accord- 
ing to  the  calculation  of  Humboldt,  the  great  veta  madre, 
or  “mother  lode,”  of  Guanajuato,  had  yielded,  up  to  his 
time,  silver  to  the  value  of  fifty-eight  million  pounds 
sterling ; and,  indeed,  it  is  to  be  recollected  that,  a 
century  ago,  Guanajuato  was  a larger  city  than  New 
York! 

Of  Zacatecas,  Durango,  San  Luis  Potosi,  Aguas 
Calientes,  and  others  of  the  numerous  important  cities  and 
towns,  linked  together  by  the  great  trunk  lines  of  railway 
along  the  vast  reaches  of  the  mesa  central,  we  cannot  speak 
save  by  name.  Each  has  its  peculiar  circumstance  and 
interest,  and  the  different  States  of  which  they  form  the 
political  and  industrial  centres  are  described  in  the 
chapter  devoted  thereto.  We  will,  however,  take  a 
momentary  flight  to  the  fine  city  of  Chihuahua,  far  to  the 
north,  situated  among  its  great  plains  and  mineral-bearing 
mountain  ranges.  Among  these  vast  deserts,  now  slowly 
yielding  to  reclamation  by  the  hand  of  civilised  man, 
scorched  by  a merciless  sun  by  day  and  bitterly  cold  by 
night,  which  form  this  part  of  Mexico,  the  savage  Apaches 
formerly  roamed — the  abominable  Apaches : the  cruellest 
and  most  treacherous  race  the  world  has  ever  known. 
Well  might  these  savages  have  been  hunted  to  the  death 
by  the  invaders  of  the  white  race,  both  here  and  on  the 
great  American  deserts  north  of  the  Rio  Grande,  and 
well  might  their  scalpings  and  torturings  form  the  theme 
for  those  adventurous  novels  which  made  our  flesh  creep 
as  we  perused  them  in  boyhood’s  days  ! Now  the  de- 


MEXICAN  LIFE  AND  TRAVEL  211 


generate  descendants  of  these  once  formidable  Redskins 
seek  a living  in  desultory  cultivation  of  the  soil,  although 
bands  of  them  and  of  other  tribes  still  cause  trouble  to 
soldiery  of  the  Mexican  Republic  at  times.  But  the 
capital  city  of  Chihuahua  is  an  example  of  man  rising 
superior  to  savagery  and  Nature,  and  this  splendid  centre 
of  modern  life  and  industry  is  far  removed  from  the 
condition  of  its  natural  surroundings.  It  stands  at  an 
elevation  of  nearly  5,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 
The  climate  is  a healthy  one,  eminently  suitable  for  the 
white  race  and  its  activities  ; and  the  population  of  30,000 
inhabitants  forms  the  centre  of  a great  growing  region 
whose  natural  resources  are  manifold.  Upon  the  river 
Conchos,  and  upon  the  Casas  Grandes,  affluents  of  the 
Rio  Grande  or  Bravo,  are  some  of  the  ruins  which  are 
amongst  the  oldest  and  most  interesting  of  Mexico, 
from  an  archaeological  point  of  view. 

We  have  said  that  the  Mexicans  are  an  hospitable 
people,  and  this  is  eminently  true  of  the  upper  class. 
As  to  the  peones,  they  are,  in  the  more  remote  districts, 
by  no  means  of  an  untractable  or  surly  character,  although 
the  lowest  in  the  scale,  and  some  of  the  Indian  tribes, 
are  excessively  stupid  and  suspicious.  The  Mexicans  of 
better  class  divide  these  people  into  gente  de  razon , or 
“rational”  people,  and  gente  intratable,  or  people  with 
whom  it  is  almost  impossible  to  treat  or  to  comprehend. 
These  people  vary  much  throughout  the  country,  but  as 
a rule  they  are  unaggressive  and  harmless.  Whilst  thiev- 
ing is  generally  ascribed  as  a strong  vice  of  the  Mexican 
lower  class,  this  must  not  be  rashly  applied.  The  peon, 
or  Indian,  may  take  articles  of  small  value  which  are  left 
about,  but  he  does  not  commit  crime  in  order  to  rob  ; 
and  the  extraordinary  outrages  constantly  perpetrated  in 
the  “Wild  West”  of  the  United  States,  in  the  shootings, 

“ holding-up  ” of  passenger  trains,  wrecking  of  express 
cars  by  dynamite,  bank  robbery,  and  the  like  exploits  of 
the  Anglo-American  desperado,  to  steal,  are  unknown  to 
the  temperament  of  the  Spanish-American.  The  latter 
are  creatures  of  impulse,  and  lack  the  “nerve”  for  a 


212 


MEXICO 


well-planned  murderous  exploit  of  the  above  nature. 
Nor  are  they  capable  of  the  lynching,  burnings  of 
negroes,  and  race  riots  which  characterise  those  parts 
of  the  United  States  which  bound  Mexico  on  the 
north,  and  once  formed  part  of  her  territory.  If,  how- 
ever, their  crimes  are  smaller,  so  is  their  power  of 
initiative,  sustained  effort,  and  the  working  for  to-morrow 
characteristic  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  and  Anglo-American 
peoples.  Yet  the  police  are  much  in  evidence  in 
Mexican  travel.  A gendarme  with  sabre  and  revolver 
accompanies  every  car  on  the  trains  which  cross  the 
great  plateau.  Indeed,  in  former  years  robbery  with 
violence  was  the  chief  “ incident  ” of  travel  in  Mexico. 
Footpads  and  armed  bandidos  infested  every  highway 
and  mountain  road  twenty  years  ago,  and  travel  was 
impossible  except  with  an  armed  escort.  But  this  was 
before  the  work  of  President  Diaz  and  his  rurales. 
The  conditions  are  now  very  different,  and  the  traveller 
may  journey  almost  anywhere,  except  in  a few  districts, 
without  danger  of  molestation,  with  ordinary  precautions 
such  as  the  characteristic  conditions  of  the  country  call 
for.  In  those  places  where  the  peones  are  distrustful  of 
the  white  foreigners  it  is  generally  due  to  the  influence  of 
these,  who  have  ingrained  their  own  bad  habits  and  vices 
upon  them.  A gentleman,  if  he  holds  the  demeanour 
covered  by  the  designation,  ever  carries  respect  in  Mexico. 

Incidents  of  life  and  travel  in  remote  regions,  among 
the  petty  authorities  and  the  hacendados,  rancheros,  and 
landowners  generally,  are  full  of  colour  and  interest  for 
the  traveller.  Our  belongings  are  securely  packed  upon  a 
couple  of  well-appointed  mules  ; we  are  astride  passable 
Mexican  horses,  seated  on  comfortable  saddles,  with  our 
servant  and  the  arriero  in  attendance,  and  we  have  left  the 
last  of  the  city  streets ; with  our  face  to  the  open  country 
the  true  charm  of  travel  comes  upon  us — the  touch  of 
Nature,  solitude,  and  the  far  horizon  which  nothing  else 
can  ever  supply.  Thus  accoutred  we  shall  hold  real 
converse  with  Nature,  and  with  the  typical  people  of  the 
land  over  which  we  pass. 


TOBACCO- PRO  DUG  I XG  HAClliXDA:  STATE  OE  VERA  CRUZ. 


MEXICAN  LIFE  AND  TRAVEL  213 


Let  us  therefore  turn  our  attention  to  the  picturesque 
world  of  the  great  bulk  of  the  Mexican  population,  the 
class  which  earns  its  daily  bread  by  the  sweat  of  its  brow. 
These  are  the  peones,  and  to  their  work  is  due  the  culti- 
vation of  the  ground,  the  working  of  the  mines,  and  all 
the  manual  labour  without  which  the  industries  of  the 
country  would  be  non-existent.  The  peon  is  not  neces- 
sarily a forced  labourer.  Nevertheless,  the  conditions  of 
his  life  are  such  that  he  is  not  a free  agent  as  the  working 
men  of  other  countries  are.  His  payment  is  largely 
received  in  goods  which  he  is  obliged  to  purchase  in  the 
general  store  of  the  hacienda,  belonging  to  the  proprietor, 
or  by  some  one  licensed  thereby.  This  is  a species  of 
“truck”  system.  High  prices  and  short  weight— in 
accordance  with  the  business  principles  underlying  such 
systems — generally  accompany  these  dealings.  Moreover, 
as  the  peon  has  often  been  granted  supplies  in  advance, 
against  future  wages,  he  is  generally  in  debt  to  the  store, 
a condition  which,  purposely,  is  not  discouraged.  The 
law  does  not  support  the  system,  but  as  the  whole  area  of 
land  surrounding  the  hacienda  belongs  thereto,  the  pro- 
prietor may  or  may  not — generally  the  latter — permit  the 
establishment  of  any  independent  shop  in  the  vicinity. 
Indeed,  such  temerity  on  the  part  of  any  would-be 
merchant  would  soon  call  down  punishment — if  such  it 
may  be  termed — from  the  myrmidons  of  the  landowner, 
to  whom  the  hunting  of  “ contraband  ” vendors  of  goods 
or  liquor  is  fair  game. 

The  house  of  the  peon — the  single-roomed  adobe-built 
habitation,  or  the  wattle-built  jacal  in  which  he  dwells, 
belongs  to  the  estate  owner  ; and  if  the  dweller,  through 
laziness  or  other  similar  cause,  fails  to  put  in  an  appear- 
ance in  the  fields,  he  is  soon  forced  to  vacate  it,  and, 
supposing  him  to  be  free  from  debt,  to  leave  the  hacienda. 
He  toils  all  day  in  the  fields,  drawing  a scanty  wage,  and 
retires  at  night  to  this  primitive  abode,  which  he  shares 
with  his  female  consort  and  her  progeny. 

Yet  it  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  under  this  autocratic 
and  patriarchal  rule — for  the  regime  in  some  respects  has 


214 


MEXICO 


an  atmosphere  of  the  pastoral  scenes  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment— the  peones  are  oppressed  or  unhappy.  Men  who 
know  no  other  state  are  contented  with  their  lot,  and  the 
poor  Mexican  creates  matters  of  pastime  and  enjoyment 
in  his  simple  life.  Bull-fights,  horse-racing,  cock-fighting, 
together  with  dancing  and  the  consumption  of  liquor — 
the  latter  his  serious  and  principal  vice — furnish  him  with 
distraction,  whilst  religious  feast-days  make  up  the  sum. 

This  description  applies  mainly  to  the  agricultural 
labourer.  The  miner  stands  somewhat  apart  as  a class, 
pursuing  his  more  arduous,  yet  possibly  more  indepen- 
dent, labour  under  the  ground,  and  living  in  the  clustered 
adobe  huts  upon  the  bare  hillside  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
mine-mouth.  With  his  pick,  bar,  and  dynamite  he 
jovially  enters  his  subterranean  passage,  where,  generally 
working  under  some  system  of  contract,  his  energies  are 
spurred  by  the  hope  of  profit  depending  upon  his  own 
efforts — ever  a stimulus  which  the  mere  day-worker  lacks. 

The  system  of  contract  work  also  obtains  in  some 
cases  with  the  agricultural  labourer,  especially  in  the 
cultivation  of  sugar-cane,  which  is  an  important  Mexican 
industry.  Fields,  with  water  for  irrigation,  are  allotted 
to  the  responsible  worker — Mexico  is  a country  whose 
rainfall  generally  is  insufficient  for  cultivation  without 
irrigation — and  this  he  cultivates,  the  hacienda  lending 
seed  and  implements,  and  taking  as  payment  a stated 
portion  of  the  crop. 

So,  if  the  people  generally  are  poor,  they  are  not  dis- 
contented. Their  wants  are  exceedingly  simple  and  easily 
supplied.  Furniture  and  other  household  chattels  are  not 
acquired  nor  required  by  the  poorer  class  of  peon.  If  he 
has  no  bedstead,  the  earthen  floor  serves  the  purpose,  and 
here  he  and  his  family  sleep,  rolled  together  in  their 
ponchos  or  blankets  for  warmth,  with  an  utter  disregard 
for  ventilation,  damp,  or  kindred  matters.  Indeed,  if 
need  be,  the  hardy  peon  will  sleep  out  upon  the  open 
plain  without  feeling  any  particular  discomfort. 

The  interior  menage  of  a Mexican  hut  is  naturally 
primitive.  The  fireplace  is  often  outside,  and  consists 


MEXICAN  PEON  LIFE  ; TYPICAL  VILLAGE  MARKET-PLACE, 


MEXICAN  LIFE  AND  TRAVEL  215 


of  unshaped  stones,  between  which  charcoal  or  firewood 
is  ignited,  and  upon  these  the  earthen  pot,  or  olla,  is 
balanced,  containing  whatever  comestible  the  moment 
may  have  afforded,  and  whose  contents  we  will  proceed 
to  investigate.  If  the  fireplace  is  inside,  there  is  often  no 
chimney,  and  the  habitation  is  smoky  and  dark,  with  only 
a hole  in  the  roof  for  ventilation.  En  passant,  it  may  be 
said  that  some  of  the  methods  of  the  poorer  Mexican 
peones  are  not  much  in  advance  of  those  of  our  common 
ancestor — primeval  man  ! 

To  observe  now  the  contents  of  the  olla.  First  it 
should  be  noted  that  earthenware  vessels  fulfil  nearly 
all  the  purposes  of  the  peones’  culinary  requirements.  In 
these  seemingly  fragile  articles  the  women  bake,  stew, 
boil,  and  fry  in  a fashion  which  would  astonish  the 
English  or  American  housewife,  accustomed  to  the  use  of 
iron  utensils.  The  diet  of  the  peon  is  largely  vegetarian, 
and  indeed  he  is  a living  example  of  the  working  force  con- 
tained in  cereals  and  leguminous  plants.  Meat  is  a scarce 
and  expensive  luxury  which  he  is  rarely  able  to  obtain. 

Most  important  of  all  in  this  primitive  menu  is  the 
tortilla ; and,  indeed,  this  simple  article  of  food  is  worthy 
of  being  blazoned  upon  the  country’s  escutcheon  ! for  it 
may  be  said  to  be  the  basis  of  all  labour  here.  The 
tortilla  is  simply  an  unsweetened  pancake  of  maiz  flour, 
patted  out  thin  in  the  hands  and  baked,  and  its  prepara- 
tion is  the  principal  occupation  of  the  women  of  the 
peones  during  the  time  their  men  are  toiling  in  the  fields. 
Let  us  watch  a Mexican  woman  of  the  working  class 
making  her  tortillas,  probably  sitting  on  the  threshold  of 
her  habitation  for  purposes  of  light  and  neighbourly 
gossip.  She  has  brought  forth  a grinding-stone  or  flat 
mortar  known  as  a metate,  for  the  purpose  of  grinding  the 
maiz — an  article  shaped  out  of  a block  of  a special  kind 
of  volcanic  stone,  called  recinta,  an  implement  inherited 
from  Aztec  times.  The  maiz  has  been  boiled  with  a little 
lime,  and  is  somewhat  softened,  and  she  places  handfuls 
of  the  grain  upon  the  metate,  adding  water,  and  shortly 
reduces  it  to  a stiff  paste  under  the  grinding  of  the  upper 


216 


MEXICO 


stone.  The  tortilla  is  then  patted  out  into  the  form  of 
a thin  pancake  and  baked  in  an  earthenware  dish,  or 
casuela.  If  it  is  to  be  our  fortune  to  partake  of  this 
preparation — and  if  we  have  been  travelling  in  a remote 
part  of  the  country  it  may  be  so— it  is  advisable  not  to 
inquire  too  closely  into  the  cleanliness  of  the  operation, 
for  the  Mexican  peon  and  his  woman  do  not  consider 
morning  ablutions  at  all  a necessary  part  of  their  toilette  ! 
The  supply  of  tortillas  being  finished,  they  are  sufficient 
for  the  day's  requirements,  and  take  the  place  of  bread, 
and,  indeed,  of  plates,  knives  and  forks,  for  the  peones 
scoop  up  their  food  or  put  it  upon  these  handy  pancakes 
for  depositing  it  in  their  mouths,  and  munch  them  with 
their  frijoles  with  the  utmost  gusto.  To  re-heat  the 
tortillas  they  are  placed  for  a few  moments  upon  the 
glowing  embers  of  the  fire,  and  with  a roll  of  tortillas  in 
his  pocket  the  peon  will  undertake  a day’s  work,  or  toil- 
some march,  and  ask  little  else.  The  tortilla,  and,  indeed, 
the  consumption  of  maiz  in  this  form,  seems  to  be 
peculiar  to  Mexico.  In  Peru,  Chile,  or  other  Spanish- 
American  countries  it  is  unknown. 

Mention  has  been  made  of  frijoles.  There  is  more 
contained  in  that  word — which  we  should  translate  as 
haricot  beans,  a small  white  variety — than  might  be 
supposed.  Next  to  the  tortilla  it  is  the  staple  article  of 
diet  of  a good  many  millions  of  Mexico’s  inhabitants. 
The  preparation  of  the  frijoles  is  simple.  They  are  boiled 
in  an  earthen  pot  until  they  are  cooked,  and  then  fried  in 
lard  or  other  fat.  They  acquire  a rich  brown  colour, 
and  are  appetising  and  wholesome.  Even  in  the  homes 
of  the  upper  class  frijoles  are — or  were — served  as  one 
of  the  courses,  although  there  is  a certain  tendency  to 
despise  this  as  a national  or  Indian  dish — a little  weak- 
ness of  advancing  civilisation  ! But  beans  cooked  in  the 
Mexican  way  might  well  be  adapted  in  English  house- 
holds, whether  for  reasons  of  novelty  or  economy.  In 
the  United  States  they  are  used  in  the  form  of  “ Boston 
baked  pork  and  beans,”  but  are  considered  a delicacy 
rather  than  an  article  of  ordinary  diet. 


MEXICAN  LIFE  AND  TRAVEL  217 


The  next  important  item  on  the  Mexican  peones’  bill  of 
fare  is  Chile.  This  is  the  chilli ; the  pepper-pods  of  that 
name,  a species  of  capsicum  ; the  guinea-pepper.  The 
pods  are  eaten  either  green,  which  is  their  unripe  condi- 
tion, or  ripe  or  sun-dried,  when  they  acquire  a scarlet 
colour.  In  the  first  state  they  are  only  slightly  piquant 
and  are  consumed  largely,  cooked  with  cheese  or  pork, 
which  latter  favourite  dish  is  known  as  Chile  con  came. 
When  red  they  are  exceedingly  piquant,  but  are  largely 
consumed  with  the  frijoles  and  tortillas.  They  might 
certainly  form  a useful  article  of  diet  in  England  or  the 
United  States,  where  they  are  practically  unknown,  except 
in  the  form  of  chilli  pepper. 

Potatoes  come  next  in  the  diet  of  the  peones.  The 
Mexican  potato,  however,  seems  often  to  be  small  and 
of  inferior  quality,  and  probably  the  soil  and  climate  are 
not  favourable  to  its  production.  Camotes  and  sweet 
potatoes,  however,  are  excellent. 

The  national  beverage  of  the  Mexican  is  the  well- 
known  pulque,  a fermented  and  intoxicating  drink  made 
from  the  maguey,  and  elsewhere  described.  Coffee  is 
much  esteemed  by  the  peones,  and  purchased  when 
circumstances  will  allow,  and  tea  also,  although  in  lesser 
degree.  Milk  and  butter  are  scarce,  and  rarely  used  by 
the  peones,  but  cheese  made  from  goats’  milk  is  a favourite 
article  of  diet.  Meat  is  often  used — when  obtainable — 
dried,  in  strips,  generally  of  beef.  Mutton,  or  came  de 
borrego  is  consumed  to  some  extent,  and  goats’  flesh 
more  frequently.  The  Mexican  peon  is  not  necessarily 
particular  as  to  the  quality  of  this  meat.  If  a cow  or 
bullock  perishes  upon  the  plain  from  drought  or  accident, 
the  villagers  soon  get  wind  of  the  fact  and  the  carcase  is 
cut  up  and  appropriated  in  short  order.  Indeed,  the 
flesh  of  horses  is  not  despised  at  times  ! And,  as  may 
be  supposed,  there  are  no  troublesome  municipal  restric- 
tions or  health  officers  in  such  places  to  interpose 
authority  against  the  practice,  and  the  struggle  for  life, 
especially  upon  the  great  plateau,  is  keen. 

Of  course,  as  we  rise  in  the  social  scale  a large  variety 


218 


MEXICO 


of  foods  are  consumed,  of  excellent  quality  and  unstinted 
quantity,  such  as  we  have  described  in  speaking  of  the 
upper  class.  Even  here,  however,  a Mexican  “ Mrs. 
Beeton  " would  have  to  describe  a number  of  novel  and 
appetising  dishes  of  national  character,  and  peculiar  to 
the  country. 

The  peon,  like  his  superior  the  educated  and  wealthy 
Mexican,  is  excessively  fond  of  tobacco.  His  cigarette 
is  his  great  solace  and  enjoyment.  No  manufactured 
and  papered  article  is  the  peones’  cigarette.  The  dried 
husk  of  the  maiz  is  taken  and  cut  into  pieces  of  the 
required  size.  Into  this  he  sprinkles  a small  portion  of 
strong  tobacco  and  rolling  it  into  a thin  roll  in  a certain 
dexterous  way,  smokes  it  without  necessity  of  gumming 
or  fastening  the  edge.  These  cigarettes  have  a distinctive 
and  agreeable  taste  and  aroma,  and  the  foreigner  who 
has  grown  accustomed  to  them  will  certainly  find 
nothing  superior  in  the  machine-made  cigarettes  of  the 
United  States  or  Great  Britain — especially  the  former. 
The  upper-class  Mexican  does  not  use  these  cigarettes  of 
lioja  de  maiz,  or  maiz  husk,  but  unceasingly  smokes  either 
the  imported  Havannas,  or  the  Mexican  paper-covered 
varieties,  which  are  generally  excellent. 

The  peon  does  not  generally  use  matches  to  light  his 
cigarette.  He  produces  an  eslabon,  or  small  steel  link, 
which  he  strikes  upon  his  piece  of  flint,  deftly  dropping 
a spark  upon  his  rag  tinder,  and  so  creates  the  means 
of  ignition.  Matches  cost  money — why  spend  un- 
necessarily ? Or,  seated  at  the  camp-fire,  he  takes  a 
glowing  wood  ember  for  the  purpose,  and  indeed  the 
traveller  finds  that  this  method  of  lighting  a husk 
cigarette  imparts  a peculiar  flavour  or  sense  of  satisfac- 
tion, unknown  before.  The  peon  who  accompanied 
me  on  my  expeditions  picked  up  the  cartridge  cases, 
especially  the  brass  ones,  which  I had  ejected  from  the 
rifle,  or  carabina,  after  firing  at  bird  or  animal,  and  pre- 
served them  carefully.  What  for  ? “ It  forms  an  excellent 
tinder-box,”  he  replied,  asking  permission  to  retain  it. 

The  Mexican  peon,  like  the  Cholo  of  Peru,  has  become 


MEXICAN  LIFE  AND  TRAVEL  219 


deeply  imbued  with  the  Roman  Catholic  religion,  as 
expounded  by  the  priests  of  Spanish-America.  His  was 
a nature  to  which  the  realistic  ceremony  and  outward 
show  of  this  system  strongly  appealed,  and  the  supersti- 
tion which  in  Spanish-America  is  an  inseparable  adjunct 
of  this  religion  among  the  poorer  class — and  indeed  to  a 
certain  extent  among  the  upper — is  at  times  scarcely  dis- 
tinguishable therefrom.  To  speak  first  of  the  religion. 
This  manifests  itself  in  their  excessive  reverence  displayed 
towards  the  priests,  the  adoration  of  saints,  and  the 
naming  of  objects  and  places  after  these,  and  in  the 
devout  method  of  expression  employed  even  in  their 
ordinary  tasks.  Shrines  and  crosses  are  found  every- 
where— upon  inaccessible  hill-tops  and  in  the  depths  of 
mines.  As  we  ride  along  the  dusty  road  our  eyes  rest 
suddenly  upon  a cross  set  by  the  way-side,  apparently 
without  any  explanation  of  its  presence  at  that  spot.  We 
turn  to  our  mozo,  or  servant,  who  himself  is  only  a more 
or  less  intelligent  peon,  and  ask  him  the  reason.  “ Senor," 
he  will  make  reply,  “ may  God  preserve  you  : a highway- 
man— un  bandido — was  overtaken  and  shot  here  some 
years  ago,"  or  some  kindred  explanation  wherein  death  has 
befallen  some  one  by  the  wayside,  whether  by  accident  or 
punishment.  There  is  much  that  is  attractive  and  good 
about  this  religious  sentiment — far  be  it  from  the  philo- 
sophical observer  to  scoff  thereat. 

Yet  the  frequent  occurrences  of  these  crosses  along 
the  mountain-roads  are  terribly  indicative  of  past  dis- 
orders, and  of  private  and  political  revenge,  and  even 
murder.  Inquiry  reveals  that  highway  robbery  and 
assassination,  private  feuds,  love,  drunken  quarrels,  and 
— frequent  as  any — pronunciamientos  and  revolutions  are 
responsible  for  the  deeds  of  bloodshed  upon  the  spots 
where  the  emblem  of  Christian  love  and  brotherhood  is 
raised  up.  A certain  lonely  hill,  which  it  was  my  fortune 
to  pass  on  one  occasion,  was  marked  by  three  decaying 
crosses  set  among  the  stones  and  thorns  at  its  base.  I 
inquired  the  reason  of  their  presence  there  from  my 
servant,  a faithful  old  peon  who  was  a native  of  the 


220 


MEXICO 


vicinity.  “Ah,  senor,”  he  replied,  crossing  himself 
devoutly  as  we  drew  rein  and  gazed  upon  the  melancholy 
spot,  “ three  Caballeros  died  here — pasado  por  las  annas 1 
— twenty  years  ago."  “For  what  reason  ?"  I inquired. 
“ That  no  one  has  ever  known,"  he  answered.  “ They 
were  roused  from  their  sleep  in  yonder  town  ” — pointing 
to  the  white  cluster  of  buildings  and  trees  on  the  far-off 
horizon  which  we  had  that  morning  left — “taken  by  a 
file  of  soldiers  under  arrest,  with  orders- — it  was  said — to 
conduct  them  to  the  capital.”  “ Well  ? " I said  as  he 
paused  ; and  the  old  fellow  looked  round  as  if  fearful 
that  rocks  and  cactuses  had  ears  and  might  report  his 
utterances  to  some  jefe  politico , and  continued,  “ A volley 
was  heard,  and  the  officers  afterwards  reported  that  the 
prisoners  had  attempted  to  escape  and  had  been  shot 
down.”  Drawing  closer  to  me  he  added,  “ But,  senor,  it 
was  not  true.  My  brother  happened  to  be  on  this  very 
hill  and  saw  it,  and  the  prisoners  had  been  stood  up  in  a 
line  and  shot.” 

I did  not  feel  called  upon  to  doubt  the  old  fellow’s 
words.  Probably  the  three  Caballeros  had  been  implicated 
in  some  political  plot,  and  the  Federal  Government  had 
— as  was  common  in  Mexico  a few  years  ago — disposed 
of  them  by  this  swift  and  ruthless  method.  The  pretext 
of  “ endeavouring  to  escape  ” was  often  a convenient  one 
to  hide  the  summary  execution  both  of  political  suspects 
and  criminals  in  the  turbulent  days  of  Mexico’s  recent 
history,  and  indeed  has  not  altogether  disappeared  yet  ! 
Pasado  por  las  armas  was  a common  penalty,  and  is  a 
somewhat  poetic  nomenclature  for  that  form  of  execution 
which  the  soldier  prefers. 

Absorbed  in  suchfreflections,  I rode  on  for  some  dis- 
tance through  the  rocky  defiles  and  over  the  alternating 
plains — absolutely  sterile  and  verdureless — which  some 
parts  of  the  great  mesa  central  present.  On  the  summit 
of  a small  eminence  I beheld  yet  another  cross — a large 
wooden  structure,  which,  however,  had  fallen  from  its 
base  of  loose  rocks  and  lay  upon  the  ground.  Old  Jos6, 
1 That  is  to  say,  shot. 


MEXICAN  LIFE  AND  TRAVEL  221 


my  servant,  was  some  distance  behind  assisting  the 
mule-driver  with  my  baggage  with  a refractory  mule, 
and  there  was  no  one  to  say  why  the  cross  had  been 
erected.  The  dusk  was  rapidly  falling  and  we  had  yet  some 
leagues  to  my  objective-point.  But  there  was  something 
pathetic  about  the  lone,  fallen  cross,  and  I felt  loath  to 
pass  and  leave  it  there,  prone.  Dismounting,  I looped 
the  long  bridle  over  a projecting  rock,  and,  ascending 
the  eminence,  took  hold  of  the  fallen  cross,  exerting  my 
strength  to  raise  it.  It  was  large  and  heavy,  and  the 
footing  on  the  slippery  rock  made  it  difficult,  but  at 
length  I managed  to  lift  it  up  and  put  it  in  position, 
piling  heavy  stones  round  its  base  to  keep  it  there. 
Engaged  in  this  self-imposed  task,  I did  not  observe  that 
my  horse — a spirited  animal  I had  bought  some  months 
before — had  freed  its  bridle  from  the  rock  below,  and 
when  I looked  round  it  was  just  breaking  into  a gentle  trot 
away  across  the  desert  ! At  this  juncture  old  Jose  rode 
up  with  the  mule-driver  and  took  in  the  situation,  and  I 
directed  the  latter  individual  to  tie  up  his  pack-mule  and 
pursue  my  horse  at  all  speed.  “This  cross,”  said  Jose, 
in  response  to  my  questions,  “ was  placed  here  when  I 
was  a boy,”  and  he  recounted  how  it  had  been  erected 
in  memory  of  an  old  Spaniard,  a rich  landowner  of  that 
region,  who  had  been  murdered  there  by  the  lover  of 
his  wife  ; she  a beautiful  young  Mexican  woman.  The 
details  of  the  history  are  too  long  to  record  here,  but 
according  to  the  legend  current  among  the  people,  which 
Jose  recounted,  the  spirit  of  the  penitent  wife  visited  the 
cross  at  evening,  and  hung  a phantom  wreath  of  white 
flowers  upon  it.  “ But,”  added  the  old  peon,  whose  dic- 
tion and  ideas,  notwithstanding  his  superstition,  were 
superior  to  his  kind  generally,  “the  cross  has  never  fallen 
before,  and  when  from  afar  I saw  the  senor  lifting  it 
up  I was  astonished.  But  it  is  a blessed  act,  and  no  evil 
can  now  befall  the  senor  ! ” 

Inquiring  what  he  meant  by  this,  I learned  that,  in  the 
opinion  of  the  natives  of  some  regions,  the  raising  up  of 
a fallen  cross  secures  immunity  from  danger  for  him 


222 


MEXICO 


who  has  performed  it  for  a season  afterwards  ! This 
belief  of  old  Jose’s  seemed  put  to  the  test,  in  his  view, 
for  half  an  hour  afterwards,  on  crossing  a steep-sided 
ravine,  my  horse  slipped  and  fell,  and  carried  me 
down  the  almost  vertical  cliff  face  for  50  feet  or  more. 
The  sand  and  stones  poured  down  in  an  avalanche,  but 
I kept  my  horse’s  head  up,  and  we  landed  on  the  sandy 
bottom  below,  unscratched,  in  a normal  position  ! “ The 

senor  has  been  saved  because  of  the  cross  !”  Jose  and 
the  arriero  both  averred,  after  congratulating  me  upon 
the  almost  miraculous  escape  from  injury. 

But  the  cross  set  up  in  Mexico  means  many  things, 
and  is  always  in  evidence  among  the  lower  orders. 
Here  is  a little  path  winding  away  among  the  rocks, 
pressed  flat  by  the  bare  feet  of  generations  of  Indian 
women.  Let  us  follow  it.  It  leads  to  a feeble  spring 
of  clear  water,  which  flows  from  the  bare  hillside  into  a 
scooped-out  rock  basin,  and  close  beside  it  is  a rude 
wooden  cross,  adorned  with  fading  flowers.  Perhaps  we 
have  met  on  the  path  a damsel  with  peasant  dress  and 
bare  brown  feet,  who  passes  us  with  downcast  eyes, 
bearing  upon  her  shoulder  a huge  earthenware  olla  of 
water  of  quaint  form — a figure  such  as  in  the  land  and 
time  of  Jacob  and  Rachel  might  have  graced  the  sterile 
landscape.  The  cross  has  been  placed  there  as  a mark 
of  gratitude  for  the  existence  of  this  frail  water  supply. 
Indeed,  in  these  Spanish -American  countries — as  Mexico, 
Peru,  and  others — the  conditions  and  atmosphere  of  every- 
day life  often  remind  us  of  the  scenes  and  colour  of 
the  Bible  narratives.  The  absence  of  the  conditions  of 
modern  life — railways,  factories,  the  scramble  for  com- 
mercial wealth — induce  this.  The  quaint  and  primitive 
methods  of  travel,  the  long  distances,  the  sterile  land- 
scape, and  the  simple  dress  and  pastoral  life  of  the 
people,  all  contribute  to  this  environment.  Amid  the 
haze  of  some  long,  shimmering  road  as  we  ride  along 
a figure  approaches.  We  do  not  see  him  ; we  “ behold 
him  while  he  is  yet  afar  off,”  and  if  he  happens  to  be  a 
native  friend  he  does  not  greet  us  with  a handshake, 


MEXICAN  LIFE  AND  TRAVEL  223 


but  “ falls  upon  our  neck.”  Here  in  these  wilds  what 
typical  places  there  are  where  the  traveller  might  “ fall 
among  thieves”  in  some  rocky  defile  or  on  the  desert’s 
edge  ! Here  men  are  close  to  nature.  They  are  uncon- 
sciously tinged  and  imbued  with  its  picturesque  and 
chequered  incident,  as  was  the  great  singer  of  Israel. 
Nature  is  ever  present  in  Mexico,  and  man’s  struggle 
with  her  is  his  daily  task.  The  wilderness  is  ever  before 
his  eyes,  and  circumstances  often  compel  him  to  fast 
there  in  the  wilderness,  whose  broad,  arid  bosom  does 
but  accentuate  the  valleys  which  intersect  it,  flowing 
veritably  with  milk  and  honey,  and  which  we  ofttimes 
behold  from  some  Pisgah’s  mountain  of  the  rocky 
Sierra.  The  “patriarchal”  condition  of  life,  moreover, 
as  regards  family  life,  “ handmaidens  ” and  natural  sons, 
are  reminiscent  of  Biblical  story.  Nature  will  not  admit 
too  rigid  regulations  against  increase  of  population  in 
Mexico  : Hagar  and  Ishmael  dwell  in  every  hamlet ! 

Just  as  the  religion  of  the  Mexican  peon  causes  him  to 
people  his  daily  surroundings  with  the  presence  of  the 
saints,  so  does  his  superstitious  mind  assign  super- 
natural causes  to  things  not  easily  explained,  and  bid 
him  see  evil  spirits  and  hobgoblins  in  strange  or  unfre- 
quented places.  Naturally,  much  of  this  superstition 
has  come  down  with  the  traditions  of  his  Aztec  for- 
bears, whose  polytheistic  religion  set  up  many  imaginary 
gods  and  spirits.  The  devil  and  his  attendant  hobgoblins 
are  active  people  in  this  people’s  minds.  But — happy 
tribute  to  the  strength  of  Christianity  ! — the  sign  of  the 
cross  is  potent  to  banish  imaginary  fiends  on  all  ordinary 
occasions. 

But  the  peon  loves  not  to  journey  alone  at  night,  nor 
to  enter  dark  caves  and  grottoes  where  the  bones  and 
mummies  of  dead  men  are  found.  Peculiar  superstition 
attaches  to  the  vicinity  of  buried  treasure.  Enter  into 
conversation  with  your  mozo,  or  other  of  the  peones,  in 
their  hours  of  relaxation,  and  they  will  impart  strange 
stories  of  apparitions  drawn  from  their  own  or  some 
acquaintance’s  experience,  and — for  they  are  given  to 


224 


MEXICO 


romancing — partly  from  their  imagination.  As  to  buried 
treasure,  it  is  supposed  that  this  is  always  guarded  by 
a spirit,  sometimes  good,  sometimes  evil,  and  generally 
that  some  evil  will  befall  those  who  meddle  with  it.  In 
the  immediate  vicinity  of  concealed  treasure  at  night, 
upon  the  plain,  the  peones  say  that  a mysterious  light  is 
seen  hovering  over  the  spot,  especially  when  damp  and 
misty.  This  light  they  term  a relation ; and  although 
they  dare  not  approach  it,  it  serves  as  a guide  to  mark 
the  place,  which  they  proceed  to  dig  over  when  daylight 
comes — although  in  some  cases  they  dare  not  do  so,  fear- 
ing that  an  evil  spirit  will  draw  them  in — in  the  hope 
of  enriching  themselves  with  treasure  trove.  The  same 
light  is  said  by  the  Mexican  miners  to  “ burn  ” over 
the  place  where  a lode  of  rich  metallic  ore  exists  undis- 
covered, or  even  within  the  workings  of  a mine, 
sometimes,  when  a body  of  rich  ore  has  escaped 
attention. 

The  truth  or  falsity  of  these  stories  of  the  peones  I 
must  leave  to  the  inclination  of  the  reader.  On  one 
occasion  I observed  a phenomenon  of  this  nature, 
however.  It  was  a damp,  misty  night,  and  I was 
sitting  in  my  tent  after  a long  day’s  examination  of 
the  hills.  “ Senor,”  suddenly  exclaimed  one  of  my 
men,  entering  the  tent,  “ there  is  a relation  burning 
on  the  plain  by  the  point  of  the  hill  ! ” I started  up, 
willing  to  observe  whatever  might  be  visible,  or  have 
the  satisfaction  of  showing  them  what  tontos  they  were. 
They  conducted  me  round  the  spur  of  the  hill  close  at 
hand.  The  sky  was  dark  and  frowning,  and  an  eerie  feel- 
ing took  possession — at  least  of  the  two  peones  ! 

“ There  1 ” they  exclaimed,  and  following  the  direction 
indicated  I observed  a pale  fluctuating  flame  or  light  a 
few  hundred  feet  distant.  I began  to  advance  towards 
it,  but  the  fearful  peones  strove  to  detain  me.  “ No,” 
senor,”  they  urged  ; “ it  is  a spirit ; do  not  approach.” 
But  disregarding  this  admonition,  I began  to  walk 
towards  the  spot,  telling  them  to  follow,  which,  how- 
ever, they  would  not  do.  In  unknown  situations  in 


MEXICAN  LIFE  AND  TRAVEL  225 


wild  countries  a revolver  gives  a certain  sense  of 
security,  and  drawing  mine  I approached  the  mys- 
terious light,  which  went  and  came  intermittently.  I 
knew  it  must  be  an  ignis  fatuus.  As  I reached  the 
place  it  disappeared  ; my  feet  suddenly  sank  in  marshy 
ground,  and  a heavy  mist-cloud  enveloped  the  place,  so 
that  I could  see  absolutely  nothing.  I confess  I felt  a 
species  of  “ gooseflesh  ” creeping  over  me.  But  my  feet 
were  sinking  deeper  in  the  bog,  and  more  by  good  luck 
than  anything  else  I floundered  out  and  regained  the  rock, 
and,  directed  by  the  shouts  of  the  peones,  made  my  way 
through  the  dense  mist  to  the  tent.  I heard  some  time 
afterwards  that  excavations  had  been  made  at  the  spot  in 
the  hope  of  finding  treasure,  but  could  not  learn  the 
result. 

Ancient  caves  in  different  parts  of  Mexico  often  con- 
tain the  skulls  and  bones  of  former  inhabitants,  whether 
prehistoric  or  of  later  times,  sometimes  containing  finely 
fashioned  flint  implements.  The  natives,  as  a rule,  fear 
to  go  into  these  places.  “ Do  not  enter,  senor,”  they 
will  say,  as,  with  Anglo-Saxon  lack  of  superstition,  you 
determine  to  explore  them  ; “ some  evil  befalls  those 
who  meddle  with  the  remains  of  the  dead.”  And  if 
they  are  prevailed  upon  to  assist  they  cross  themselves 
devoutly  before  descending  or  entering.  Weird  tales 
they  unfold  afterwards  of  men  who  have  gone  into 
such  places  and  found  their  exit  barred  by  some  evil 
spirit,  they  themselves  having  been  encountered  dead 
and  cold  upon  the  cavern  floor  when  discovered  by 
their  relatives,  who  had  searched  for  the  missing  one  ! 
According  to  the  peones,  the  scenes  of  murder  or  wicked- 
ness which  may  have  taken  place  in  such  situations  are 
enacted  again  to  the  terrified  vision  of  the  unhappy 
witness  who  had  the  temerity  to  venture  into  these 
places  possessed  of  the  devil,  for  the  King  of  Darkness 
is  an  ever-present  and  active  element  of  the  poor 
Mexican’s  superstitious  world. 

As  to  buried  treasure,  it  is  a favourite  subject  of  the 
peon  for  conversation.  Quantities  of  silver  money  and 

16 


226 


MEXICO 


other  articles  are  frequently  found  concealed  throughout 
the  country,  where  they  were  often  placed  for  safety  in 
the  turbulent  times  of  former  history.  At  the  time 
of  the  dispossession  of  the  clergy  it  is  probable  that  a 
good  deal  of  concealment  of  this  nature  was  made, 
whether  in  lonely  places  in  the  hills  or  plains,  or  in  the 
floors  and  walls  of  convents  and  houses. 

It  was  with  considerable  difficulty  that  I persuaded  my 
peones  on  one  occasion  to  assist  me  in  the  examination 
of  a cave  which  was  said  to  contain  the  remains  of  the 
dead.  The  cave  had  a corkscrew-like  opening  from 
the  surface  of  the  hill,  a barren  limestone  hog-back  in 
the  State  of  Durango.  It  descended  spirally  for  some 
30  feet  or  more,  as  I found  when  my  men  lowered 
me  down  with  a rope,  at  my  command.  When  my  feet 
touched  bottom  I lighted  the  candle,  which  had  been  put 
out  in  the  descent,  and  looked  around.  The  place  was 
of  small  extent — little  more  than  a pit — and  it  seemed 
to  be  a natural  cavity,  with  nothing  remarkable  about 
it.  But  I turned  my  attention  to  the  floor,  which  felt 
curiously  soft  and  greasy  to  the  touch.  It  was  strewn 
with  pieces  of  human  bones  and  skulls  ! The  gruesome 
place  weighed  rather  upon  me,  I confess,  silent  and 
stifling  as  it  was,  but  having  come  to  explore  I pro- 
ceeded to  excavate  lightly  in  the  yielding  material  of 
the  floor  with  a light  pick.  The  singular  nature  of  this 
material  aroused  my  attention,  and  well  it  might,  for 
I afterwards  learned  that  there  was  a legend  to  the 
effect  that  the  pit  had  been  the  scene  of  a massacre, 
and  that  numbers  of  persons  alive  and  dead,  had  been 
thrown  into  it,  and  the  soft  material  was  the  decayed 
human  remains  ! When  this  had  taken  place  no  one 
knew,  but  it  must  have  been  at  a very  remote  or  pre- 
historic period,  for  during  my  digging  in  the  floor  I 
unearthed  a flint  spearhead,  beautifully  chipped  and 
fashioned,  lying  by  a skull  it  had  cloven.  The  spear- 
head, or  blade,  is  some  6 inches  in  length  and  4 inches 
in  width,  about  a quarter  of  an  inch  thick,  and  I still 
preserve  it. 


MEXICAN  LIFE  AND  TRAVEL  227 


So,  as  we  have  seen,  religion  and  superstition  are  much 
combined  in  the  mind  of  the  Mexicans,  the  result  of  both 
ancient  and  modern  creeds.  As  to  the  antique  beliefs 
and  cult,  there  is  much  that  appeals  to  the  philosopher 
in  the  religious  structures  and  history  of  the  prehistoric, 
semi-civilised  peoples  of  Mexico,  or  indeed  of  Spanish- 
America,  whether  North  or  South.  The  pyramids  and 
temples,  which  the  Toltecs  and  the  Aztecs  and  the  Incas 
built,  have  something  grand  and  broad  underlying  their 
main  idea,  the  idea  of  being  able  to  get  on  their  temples 
rather  than  in  them.  There  is  ever  a source  of  inspira- 
tion in  being  upon  the  point  of  an  eminence,  to  com- 
mune with  Providence,  rather  than  being  immured 
within  some  gloomy  walls,  with  toppling  spires  over- 
head. The  spirit  ever  tries  to  get  out,  to  ascend,  and 
is  exalted  in  accordance  with  its  altitude.  Did  not 
Moses  at  Sinai  bring  forth  the  enduring  Decalogue 
from  the  summit  of  a great  natural  pyramid,  rather 
than  from  the  gloomy  interior  of  a temple  ? The 
exceedingly  numerous  pyramids  throughout  ancient 
Mexico  seem  to  attest  some  exalted  idea  of  a natural 
religion,  which  found  outlet  and  habitation  in  the  great 
Teocallis. 

Man,  semi-civilised  or  modern,  ever  strives  to  com- 
mune with  a God,  an  unseen  Being.  Is  it  not  nobler 
and  more  inspiring  to  gaze  towards  the  setting  sun  with 
solitude  around  us  ? An  environment  of  Nature,  the 
nearest  approach  to  the  “ unknown  God  ” which  exists, 
subtly  attracts  us  as  the  handiwork  of  a power  un- 
known. Well  may  the  altar  lights  and  emblems,  and  the 
oppressive  enclosure  of  temples,  be  more  and  more 
rejected  by  the  thinking  mind,  as  the  dark  ages  of 
religion  leave  us  and  true  reverential  knowledge  un- 
folds. We  might  almost  be  tempted  to  say  that  the 
cathedrals  of  Mexico  are  not  a philosophical  exchange 
for  its  Teocallis,  nor  that  the  stake  and  axe  of  the  Inqui- 
sition were  much  advance  upon  the  sacrificial  stone  of 
the  Aztec  war-god  ! The  frenzied  priest  who  cut  open 
the  breast  of  the  human  sacrificial  victim  with  an 


228 


MEXICO 


obsidian  knife,  and  tore  out  the  palpitating  heart  to 
cast  it  before  his  fanciful  gods,  does  not  present  a pic- 
ture of  such  refined  cruelty  as  that  of  civilised  European 
man,  the  Inquisitors  in  long  black  cloaks,  calmly  sitting 
by  whilst  their  victims  were  slowly  roasted  to  death 
at  the  stake  because  they  would  not  change  their 
faith,  or  for  other  equally  reasonless  cause.  There 
is,  and  ever  will  be,  something  peculiarly  sinister  and 
abominable  about  the  recollection  of  the  Inquisition 
and  its  operations,  under  the  sky  of  the  New  World. 
And  to  the  philosophical  observer,  who  pins  his  thoughts 
to  no  mere  creed  of  whatever  designation,  the  fact 
seems  palpable  that  the  sinister  authority  which  did 
those  things  is  only  slumbering,  and  did  not  civilisa- 
tion and  antagonism  restrain  it  those  scenes  would  be 
repeated.  The  germs  of  an  Inquisition  exist  in  almost 
every  religious  organisation,  but  the  old  original  one 
would  burn  its  victims  again  if  it  could  ! 

As  to  the  Teocallis,  perhaps  their  form  was  suggested 
by  the  natural  pyramidal  hills  of  the  mountain  landscape, 
whereon  men  must  have  stood  to  watch  the  sunset  and 
feel  nearer  heaven,  even  in  those  savage  lands.  Even  to- 
day this  hill-ascending  influence  is  not  banished  among 
the  primitive  class  of  the  Mexican  people.  Every  hill  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  a hamlet  is  surmounted  by  a cross, 
up  to  which  culminating  point  processions  constantly 
ascend.  Indeed,  at  times  the  devout — or  fanatic — Indian 
and  peon  ascends  these  rocky  steeps  upon  his  knees, 
leaving  blood-spots  to  mark  his  way  ! Processions  of 
fanatic  Indians  were  formerly  common  ; they  journeyed 
over  great  distances  upon  their  knees  towards  some 
popular  shrine,  and  although  the  law  now  prohibits 
these,  they  are  surreptitiously  carried  out  at  times,  and 
I have  witnessed  them  myself.  Onwards  and  upwards 
towards  the  “Unknown  God”  these  poor  people  grope 
their  way — 

“ Upon  the  great  world’s  altar  stairs.” 

Can  we  say  much  more  of  the  most  civilised  among  us  ? 


MEXICAN  LIFE  AND  TRAVEL  229 


Much  of  beauty  and  interest  there  is  in  a study  of  both 
the  old  and  new  religions  of  this  land  ; much  of  the 
romance  of  the  former  we  may  feel,  as,  standing  on  the 
pyramid  whence  the  rays  of  the  orb  of  day  were  flashed 
back  from  the  golden  breastplate  of  Tonatiah  in  days  of 
yore,  we  mark  the  sun-god  of  the  Aztecs  sink  in  the 
Occident. 


CHAPTER  XII 


MEXICAN  LIFE  AND  TRAVEL  ( continued ) 


Anthropogeographical  conditions — The  Great  Plateau — The  tropical  belt 
— Primitive  villages — Incidentsof  travel  on  the  plateau — Lack  of  water 
— Hydrographic  conditions — Venomous  vermin — Travel  byroads  and 
diligencias — A journey  with  a priest — Courtesy  of  the  peon  class — 
The  curse  of  alcohol — The  dress  of  the  working  classes — The  women 
of  the  peon  class — Dexterity  of  the  natives — The  bull-fights — A narrow 
escape — Mexican  horse  equipment — The  vaquero  and  the  lasso — 
Native  sports — A challenge  to  a duel — Foreigners  in  Mexico — Unex- 
plored Guerrero — Sporting  conditions — Camp  life — A day’s  hunting. 


The  picturesque  incidents  of  life  and  travel  in  Mexico 
vary  much  according  to  the  particular  part  of  the 
country  we  may  be  sojourning  in  or  passing  through. 
Civilisation  has  advanced  more  upon  the  great  plateau, 
threaded  by  numerous  railway  systems,  than  in  the  less 
accessible  regions  of  the  Pacific  and  Atlantic  slopes. 
Mexican  national  life  has  not  developed  much  upon  the 
littoral.  A harbourless  and  riverless  country,  aboriginal 
civilisation  made  little  use  of  its  coasts,  and  the  same 
natural  conditions  have  existed  until  to-day,  although 
now,  at  great  cost,  harbours  are  being  created  and  trans- 
verse railway  lines  being  built. 

Yet  upon  the  great  plateau,  which,  indeed,  embodies 
a large  part  of  Mexico,  life  is  harder — at  any  rate  for  the 
labouring  classes — than  in  the  tropical  regions  bordering 
upon  the  Pacific  and  Atlantic  slopes,  and  of  that  equally 
or  more  tropical  region  to  the  south  of  the  Sierra  Madres. 
Scantily  clad,  the  peon  suffers  from  the  brusque  change 
from  torrid  day  to  bitterly  cold  night  which  the  climate 

230 


THE  PACIFIC  COAST  ZONE  : COCOA-NUT  PALMS  AT  COLIMA. 


MEXICAN  LIFE  AND  TRAVEL  231 


of  the  great  tableland  produces.  The  ground  is  gener- 
ally sterile  by  nature — as  elsewhere  described — and  all 
produce  is  grown  under  irrigation.  In  many  parts  of  the 
region  water  is  scarce,  or  is  employed  for  the  irrigation 
of  highly  remunerative  crops,  such  as  cotton,  leaving  a 
minimum  for  the  growing  of  food  products.  In  this  arid 
region  natural  pasture  is  scarce,  with  a consequent  dearth 
of  cattle  and  their  produce,  whilst  cereals,  fruits,  and 
vegetables  are  far  from  plentiful.  Consequently  the 
peon  has  but  a small  choice  of  comestibles. 

In  the  more  tropical  belt,  however,  the  vegetation  is 
profuse,  and  fruits,  cereals,  and  any  product  of  the 
vegetable  world  grows  almost  spontaneously,  or  with  a 
minimum  of  care.  Bananas,  oranges,  sweet  potatoes, 
sugar-cane,  and  a variety  of  eatables — all  easily  acquired 
— increase  his  range  of  food  products,  even  if  they  do 
not  augment  his  working  powers. 

Not  all  th e peon  inhabitants  of  Mexico  are  necessarily 
attached  to  the  large  estates.  Upon  the  great  tableland 
the  traveller,  as  he  pursues  his  sun-beat  and  dusty  road, 
will  constantly  come  upon  small  hamlets  and  even  single 
dwellings,  set  near  the  base  of  some  hill  or  in  the  broken 
ground  of  a ravine,  or  arroyo,  where  perchance  a feeble 
stream  or  spring  provides  the  inhabitants  with  the  means 
of  satisfying  their  thirst.  Failing  that  a dammed-up 
pond  may  form  the  only  supply  of  water. 

These  places  are  generally  of  the  most  primitive  and 
miserable  character.  Often,  were  it  not  for  the  sterile 
nature  of  the  land  and  the  lack  of  water  they  would  not 
be  in  the  possession  of  the  people  at  all,  but  would  long 
ago  have  been  taken  by  the  nearest  hacienda.  Indeed, 
possibly  they  may  be  upon  the  territory  claimed  by  such, 
but  of  too  insignificant  a nature  to  be  disturbed.  Let 
us  survey  briefly  these  poor  dwellers  on  Nature’s  waste 
places.  We  have  ridden  for  hours  under  the  sun  and 
wind  ; our  faces  are  scorched  and  our  lips  are  cracked. 
“ Is  there  no  sombra  where  we  can  eat  our  lunch  and  take 
a siesta  ?”  I ask  of  my  servant,  who  is  acting  in  the 
double  capacity  of  mozo  and  guide.  He  shakes  his  head 


232 


MEXICO 


doubtfully.  “ Quien  sabe,  senor,”  he  replies,  but  recol- 
lects a publecito,  a little  farther  on,  where  we  may  obtain 
shade.  We  ride  on.  Oh  for  a drink  from  some  crystal 
stream  ! The  water  in  the  bottle  is  lukewarm  ; it  is  not 
a bottle,  but  a gourd,  such  as  in  Mexico  are  fashioned 
from  the  wild  calabazas  for  this  purpose,  stoppered  with 
maize-cob  freed  from  the  grain,  and  it  preserves  the 
water  fairly  fresh. 

The  vociferous  barking  of  a legion  of  dogs  announces 
our  approach,  for  however  poor  the  inhabitants  of  these 
places  may  be  the  bands  of  mongrel  curs  which  they 
keep  seem  to  find  means  of  living.  We  approach  the 
huts,  our  horses  kicking  and  snorting  at  the  attacks  of 
the  dogs.  A few  of  the  houses  are  built  of  the  usual 
adobe  bricks  ; the  major  portion — there  may  be  a dozen 
or  so — are  simply  jacales,  as  the  Mexican  wattle-hut  is 
termed.  Dirt,  rags,  and  evil  odours  surround  the  place, 
for  primitive  man  is  a filthy  being,  and  defiles  the 
environs  of  his  habitation  for  a considerable  area  around 
him.  My  visions  of  the  crystal  stream  vanish.  Close  at 
hand  is  a foul  pond  of  waters  collected  from  the  last 
rainstorm,  wherein  a lean-backed  hog  wallows,  and  we 
learn  that  this  is  the  villagers’  water  supply  ! Naked 
children  of  both  sexes  run  about  under  our  horses’  legs, 
and  supplicate  me  for  a centavito.  A horse,  or  at  least  the 
framework  of  a horse — for  the  animal  is  attenuated  beyond 
description — stands  tethered  under  the  shade  of  a rude 
roof  of  boughs  and  whinnies  feebly  to  our  sturdy  mounts. 

“ There  is  no  water,  senor,”  the  old  crone,  who  has 
emerged  from  one  of  the  huts,  replies.  “ God  has  sent 
us  no  rain  for  many  days,  but  if  the  senor  would  like 
some  pulque — ” I close  with  the  suggestion  and  in- 

struct the  mozo  to  try  it,  to  see  if,  in  his  experienced 
judgment,  it  is  good.  This  he  does,  nothing  loath,  and 
pronounces  it  fresh.  Pulque  is  a refreshing  and  not 
unwholesome  drink.  It  is  not  a spirit,  although  in 
quantities  it  is  intoxicating.  Its  manufacture  is  unknown 
outside  Mexico,  and  in  Peru  the  chicha,  or  maiz  beer  of 
the  natives,  takes  its  place. 


MEXICAN  LIFE  AND  TRAVEL  233 


I quaff  a gourd  of  the  liquid  ; custom  has  rendered 
it  not  unpleasant  to  the  palate,  and  its  singular  odour 
I disregard.  And  in  the  cool  shade  of  the  interior  of 
the  most  respectable  of  the  adobe  huts  we  rest  awhile 
until  the  sun’s  fiery  disc  has  descended  somewhat  from 
the  zenith.  Then  I distribute  some  small  largesse  to 
the  woman  and  her  numerous  progeny,  for  am  I not 
an  ingles,  of  that  famous  race  whose  pockets  are  ever 
lined  with  silver  and  who  are  known  even  throughout 
these  remote  regions  ? 

How  do  these  people  live  ? The  only  vegetation  at 
hand  is  some  gaunt  nopales  or  prickly  pear  cactus,  form- 
ing a protective  hedge  around  the  settlement,  and  a few 
other  specimens,  all  armed  with  spines  and  prickles  after 
the  fashion  of  Nature's  handiwork  in  arid  regions.  Truly, 
these  outcasts  must  gather  “ grapes  of  thorns  and  figs  of 
thistles”  if  they  reap  anything  here  ! But  probably  at 
the  head  of  the  arroyo  there  is  a little  tilled  patch  of 
maiz  and  alfalfa,  such  as  supply  the  inevitable  tortilla 
for  the  denizens  of  the  place,  and  fodder — and  thereby 
some  small  revenue,  as  in  our  own  case — for  the  beasts 
of  passing  travellers. 

But  this  region  is  not  always  dry.  At  certain  seasons 
heavy  rainstorms  occur,  and  a veritable  deluge  descends 
upon  the  cracked  ground  and  fills  the  dry  river-beds  and 
arroyos  with  a turgid  flood.  In  some  situations,  as,  for 
example,  on  the  river  Nazas,  a wave  of  water  comes 
down,  covering  io  or  15  feet  deep  and  500  feet  wide 
in  an  irresistible  flood  what  a few  moments  before  was 
a parched  and  sandy  bottom.  In  the  great  gullies  of 
the  plains  similar  conditions  occur,  and  woebetide  the 
unfortunate  horseman  or  foot  passenger  who  may  be 
journeying  along  them  at  the  moment  ! These  sudden 
freshets  are  a remarkable  feature  of  the  hydrography  of 
the  great  plateau,  and  have  been  more  fully  described 
in  another  chapter. 

Such  a storm  we  shall  have  encountered  in  our  expe- 
ditions. The  rain  comes  down  in  torrents,  and  the 
lightning  flashes  and  the  thunder  reverberates  among 


234 


MEXICO 


the  rocks  and  canyons ; for  we  have  approached  a 
mountain  spur,  perhaps,  in  our  examination  of  its 
mineral  resources. 

The  peon  in  such  situations,  if  there  be  no  shelter  at 
hand,  not  infrequently,  when  alone  or  only  with  his 
companions,  takes  off  his  clothing  and  places  it  in  some 
sheltered  rock-crevice,  where  it  keeps  dry,  until  the 
storm  has  passed,  he  himself  remaining  nude  and  un- 
concerned amid  the  downpour.  A mouthful  of  mezcal, 
or  fiery  native  spirit,  will  ward  off  a chill. 

At  night  we  have  sought  the  hospitality  of  the  owner 
of  some  adobe  hut.  He  has  done  his  best  for  me,  but 
sleeping  on  the  floor  is  ever  trying,  and  the  pack-mule 
with  my  baggage  and  camp-bed  has  tarried  on  the  road. 
A rainstorm  in  this  region  has  the  effect  of  bringing 
out  the  noxious  vermin  from  the  soil,  where  they  have 
lain  during  the  heat.  Among  the  most  uncomfortable 
of  these  are  the  alacran,  or  scorpion,  and  the  centipede, 
both  of  which  reptiles  are  found  freely  upon  the  walls 
and  roofs  of  the  adobe  dwellings.  For  my  peace  of 
mind  we  have  carefully  examined  the  interior,  with  a 
candle,  before  turning  in,  and  the  mozo,  with  a piece  of 
firewood,  has  smashed  the  offending  centipedes,  of  which 
there  were  a number.  Both  the  scorpion  and  centipede 
have  a venomous  sting,  the  former  sometimes  fatal.  As 
to  the  peones,  they  display  small  concern  at  the  presence 
of  these  vermin.  “ God  willing  we  shall  not  be  stung,” 
they  say,  and,  rolling  themselves  in  their  ponchos  on  the 
bare  floor  in  a corner  of  the  habitation,  they  are  soon 
asleep.  But  sleep  does  not  visit  me  so  easily.  An  un- 
comfortable impression  remains,  which  has  not  been 
lessened  by  the  casual  remark  of  the  owner  of  the  hut 
regarding  the  habits  of  the  scorpions.  “ Very  knowing 
creatures,  senor,”  he  says,  as  he  obsequiously  helps  to 
arrange  my  couch  in  the  middle  of  the  floor — a position 
chosen  by  myself — “ they  have  a habit  of  dropping 
from  the  roof  on  to  a person  sleeping  beneath”  ! 

Mexico,  unlike  other  Cordilleran  countries,  lends  itself 
to  travel  in  certain  directions  by  means  of  roads  and 


LIFE  AND  TRAVEL  IN  MEXICO  : MULES,  PEON,  AND  CACTUS. 


f7o  face  p.  235. 


MEXICAN  LIFE  AND  TRAVEL  235 


vehicles.  The  diligencias  which  give  communication 
from  remote  places  to  the  wayside  stations  of  the  rail- 
ways, where  the  nature  of  the  topography  admits  of 
roads  for  wheeled  vehicles,  are  canvas-topped  carriages 
drawn  by  half  a dozen  mules.  Over  the  dusty  plains  of 
the  tableland  and  through  the  rugged  scenery  of  hill- 
passes  these  somewhat  crazy  vehicles  perform  their 
journeys,  starting  often  before  sunrise  and  arriving 
after  sunset  in  order  to  accomplish  their  toilsome  tra- 
jectory. Jolting  over  the  ruts  and  arroyos  of  the  scarcely- 
tended  “ roads  " — if  by  courtesy  they  may  be  termed  such 
— and  baked  by  the  sun  blazing  upon  the  carriage-hood, 
the  traveller  would  often  prefer  to  exchange  his  uncom- 
fortable seat  for  that  of  the  saddle.  Often  a more 
agreeable  method  is  by  alternating  these  methods. 

I journeyed,  on  one  occasion,  with  a padre,  or  village 
priest ; not,  however,  in  a public  diligencia,  but  in  a 
vehicle  of  similar  nature  which  I had  chartered  to 
convey  me  to  a distant  point.  As  I was  starting  some 
Mexican  friends  of  a neighbouring  hacienda  approached 
the  vehicle,  accompanied  by  a stout  padre.  “ Would  I 
do  them  and  the  padre  the  great  favour  of  taking  the 
latter  in  my  coach,  which  would  save  the  worthy  repre- 
sentative of  the  Church  a long,  hot  ride  ? ” they  asked. 
“ Of  course  I would  ; nothing  would  afford  me  greater 
pleasure,"  I replied,  although  in  strict  truth  this  was  an 
expression  of  courtesy  rather  than  of  actual  fact,  for  the 
padre  looked  very  heavy,  and  I had  desired  to  journey 
rapidly  without  a change  of  mules.  The  reverend 
gentleman  was  of  a type  commonly  met  with  in  Spanish- 
America,  of  little  education  and  predominant  native 
physiognomy,  but  jovial  withal.  A basket  containing 
good  and  liberal  provisions  to  sustain  the  padre  upon  his 
arduous  journey  was  put  into  the  coach  by  his  friends, 
and  simultaneously  put  at  my  service,  as  a matter  of 
course.  From  the  covering  of  the  basket  protruded 
the  tops  of  various  bottles  of  wine  and  beer,  which 
my  travelling  companion  eyed  with  satisfaction,  and 
indeed  before  we  started  he  insisted  upon  opening  one 


236 


MEXICO 


— of  cognac — and  giving  us  a copa  all  round.  This 
habit  of  drinking  brandy  in  the  early  morning  is  a 
common  one  in  Latin  America — it  is  said  to  ward  off 
malaria  ! — but  is  not  an  acceptable  one  to  the  temperate 
Briton. 

Well,  the  coach  started.  The  peon  who  held  the 
mules’  heads — a necessary  precaution — let  go,  and  the 
half-broken  animals  bounded  forward  along  the  rough 
and  dusty  road,  in  a way  which  rendered  both  the  padre 
and  myself  quite  speechless  for  a space.  However,  they 
soon  settled  down  into  their  rapid  jog-trot,  and  I found 
my  companion  quite  loquacious.  His  mission  had  been 
to  marry  a number  of  peones  at  the  hacienda,  who,  at  such 
places,  where  the  visits  of  a representative  of  the  Church 
are  apt  to  be  few  and  delayed,  have  to  wait  for  the  Church’s 
blessing  for  some  time,  and  then  receive  it  in  batches. 
This  delay,  however,  does  not  necessarily  cause  a post- 
ponement of  their  matrimonial  relations  in  other  respects 
— as,  indeed,  the  reverend  father  informed  me  ! Other 
interesting  matters  and  views  of  men  (and  women)  and 
their  customs  the  padre  unfolded  as  we  went  along, 
drawn  from  his  professional  experience,  and  recounted, 
perhaps,  with  more  freedom  to  a foreigner  who  under- 
stood his  language,  and  doubtless  rendered  of  more 
facile  delivery  by  the  frequent  investigations  of  the 
contents  of  the  bottles  which  he  made  as  the  day 
wore  on. 

As  evening  approached  my  coach  halted  at  a small 
village  at  the  foot  of  a range  of  hills  which  intersected 
the  desert,  in  order  that  the  mules  might  water.  The 
inhabitants  of  the  place,  eager  for  the  least  distraction, 
approached  ; and,  learning  that  a padre  was  within  the 
vehicle,  the  women  and  girls  crowded  round  to  receive 
the  good  man's  benediction  and  kiss  his  hand,  which  he 
graciously  extended  from  the  carriage  window.  But 
the  throng  was  considerable,  and  our  stay  short,  and  it 
seemed  that  many  of  them  would  not  be  able  to  kiss  the 
brown  hand  of  the  priest.  And  now  I absolve  myself 
from  having  done  it  on  purpose  ! My  own  hand  lay 


MEXICAN  LIFE  AND  TRAVEL  237 


upon  the  sill  of  the  window  upon  my  side  of  the  coach, 
and  suddenly  I felt  the  pressure  of  a pair  of  lips  upon  it  ! 
Looking  out,  I saw  that  some  of  the  girls  and  women 
had  come  round  to  that  side  of  the  vehicle,  and,  doubt- 
less, supposing  that  I was  also  a padre,  had  begun  to  kiss 
my  hand.  A certain  feeling  of  pity  or  delicacy  caused 
me  to  refrain  from  removing  it — let  them  be  happy  in 
thinking  they  were  also  the  recipient  of  some  attention  ; 
and  so  I left  it  there.  No  one  peered  into  the  gloom  of 
the  vehicle’s  interior,  or  the  supposed  padre  would  have 
been  discovered  as  a clean-shaven  young  Englishman, 
dressed,  not  in  priestly  black  and  cassock,  but  in  riding 
garments ! And  when  the  vehicle  started  I did  not 
consider  it  necessary  to  inform  my  companion  of  the 
role  I had  unwittingly  played. 

But  the  day’s  adventures  were  not  over.  In  crossing 
the  dry  bed  of  an  arroyo  a wheel  gave  way  and  the  coach 
overturned,  fortunately  for  me  on  the  side  of  the 
padre  ! Had  it  been  otherwise  the  weight  of  the  good 
priest  might  have  caused  me  much  inconvenience  ; but 
as  it  was  I fell  upon  him.  It  was  in  no  irreverent  spirit 
that  I afterwards  cogitated  that,  at  least  on  one  occasion 
of  my  life,  the  Romish  Church  had  interposed  between 
me  and  injury  ! And  as  the  priest  was  not  hurt,  I could 
afford  to  impart  this  view  to  him. 

The  poor  peon  class  is  there  much  under  the  influence 
of  the  priest,  especially  the  women,  and,  indeed,  among 
the  upper  classes  the  confessional  and  other  priestly 
operations  are  attended  with  as  much  rigidity  as  in  past 
centuries,  although  the  male  sex  has  very  greatly  eman- 
cipated itself  therefrom,  and  receives  any  allusions  to  the 
priest  with  a shrug  of  the  shoulders,  or,  at  times,  with 
coldness  or  open  hostility  towards  that  worthy.  The 
Church  has  fallen  into  disrepute  in  Mexico,  and  it  is 
impossible  that  it  should  ever  regain  its  former  pre- 
eminence. The  humble  peones  arouse  the  foreigner's 
pity.  Poor  people  ! they  are  bound  by  centuries  of  class- 
distinction  and  priestly  craft  transplanted  from  an  'old- 
world  monarchy.  These  people  are  generally  affectionate 


238 


MEXICO 


and  respectful ; they  will  undergo  hardship  and  toil  to 
serve  us  if  we  have  by  justice  and  tolerance  won  their 
respect  and  sympathy  ; and  with  a faithfulness  that  is 
almost  canine.  Their  feasts,  ceremonies,  griefs,  are 
quaint  and  full  of  colour  and  the  human  touch.  Their 
simple  state  of  life  and  humble  dress  take  nothing 
from  their  native  courtesy.  Behold  yon  sandalled  and 
manta-  (cheap  calico)  clad  worker.  He  will  never  think 
of  addressing  us  without  taking  off  his  grimy  and  bat- 
tered hat,  nor  will  he  speak  to  his  acquaintance  or  fel- 
low worker  save  as  “ Don” — Don  Tomas,  Don  Juan,  or 
whatever  it  may  be.  His  first  salutation  in  the  morn- 
ing is  always  to  ask  how  we  have  slept.  Indeed  this  is 
a common  form  of  salutation  with  all  classes  in  Mexico, 
u Como  ha  pasado  listed  la  noche  ? ” And  it  is  but  an 
indication  of  that  importance  which  they  attach  to  sleep. 
None  would  think  to  disturb  our  siesta,  no  matter  who 
might  be  waiting  to  see  us,  and  nothing  short  of  actual 
danger  to  us  would  cause  us  to  be  awakened  before  the 
usual  hour,  or  aroused  after  we  had  retired. 

The  great  enemy  of  the  peon  and  Indian  class  is 
alcohol.  Whether  it  be  the  mild  intoxicant  pulque  of 
the  plateau — for  the  beverage  will  not  keep  in  the  tierra 
caliente — or  whether  the  fiery  aguadiente,  or  cane-rum, 
or  the  potent  mezcal,  also  made  from  maguey,  the  habit 
of  drinking  to  excess  is  the  ruination  of  the  working 
class.  Wherever  it  may  be,  whether  under  the  shade 
of  a tree  in  the  noonday  sun,  or  riding  an  attenuated 
horse  across  the  plains,  or  at  the  dwelling  of  some 
compadre  or  other  acquaintance,  there  is  a bottle  pro- 
truding from  pocket  or  saddle-bags,  and  the  odour  of 
spirits  in  the  air.  The  remedy  lies  largely  in  prohibition, 
but,  alas  ! the  country’s  legislators  are  generally  great 
landowners,  and  part  of  their  revenue  comes  from  the 
growing  of  the  maguey,  or  of  the  sugar-cane,  and  in  the 
making  and  sale  of  pulque  and  aguadiente. 

The  dress  of  the  peon  is  picturesque,  and  to  the  foreign 
observer  ever  strikes  a note  of  almost  operatic  strain.  As 
the  sun  sets  the  peon  dons  his  poncho,  or  serape,  as  the 


MEXICAN  LIFE  AND  TRAVEL  239 


red  blanket  which  is  his  invariable  outer  garment  is 
termed.  In  the  cool  air  of  the  morning  or  evening  he 
speaks  but  little,  covering  his  mouth  with  a corner  of 
the  serape,  for  he  has  a constant  and,  as  far  as  the 
foreigner  can  observe,  unfounded  fear  of  pneumonia. 
The  crowning  point  of  his  dress  is  the  great  conical, 
broad-brimmed  hat,  which  is  the  main  and  peculiar 
characteristic  of  the  inhabitants  of  this  land  ; a national 
and  remarkable  headgear  which  is  met  with  nowhere  else. 
There  is  ever  a brigand-like  local  colour  about  the 
Mexican  peon,  and  indeed  of  some  of  the  upper  classes 
in  their  national  dress.  The  peon,  or  the  vaqnero, 1 as  he 
stalks  muffled  through  the  streets  or  plaza,  or  lurks 
within  his  habitation  with  a corner  of  the  serape  thrown 
over  his  shoulder  and  a knife  stuck  in  his  belt,  is  a sub- 
ject which  might  have  stepped  from  the  boards  of  a 
theatre  ! Although  he  is  respectful  in  his  demeanour, 
and  often  devout  in  his  language,  the  open  greeting 
and  confident  demeanour  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  is  absent. 
Who  can  blame  him  ? The  oppression  of  centuries 
weighs  upon  him  ; he  has  been  doomed  to  ignorance 
and  poverty  ever  since  his  Iberian  conquerors  set  foot 
upon  the  soil  which  was  his,  and  the  descendants  of  this 
same  conquering  race  do  little  but  perpetuate  his 
melancholy  state.  In  the  years  since  the  Republic  was 
established  he  has  been  constantly  dragged  from  his 
peaceful  labours  to  serve  this  or  that  revolutionary 
malcontent,  and  so  made  to  destroy  rather  than  create 
industry.  And  to-day  he  is  the  subject  of  such  unequal 
wealth  and  class  distinction  whose  change  it  seems 
impossible  to  hope  for.  Yet  there  is  some  progress. 

As  to  the  women  of  the  peones,  their  dress  is  generally 
sombre-hued  and  modest.  No  scarlet  blanket  covers 
them,  but  a blue  reboso,  or  shawl,  which  is  generally  placed 
over  the  head  in  lieu  of  a hat.  The  women  of  the  poorer 
classes  accept,  with  what  to  the  foreigner  seems  almost 
a pathetic  resignation,  the  style  of  dress  which  custom 
has  dictated  to  their  class.  There  is  no  aping  of  the 

1 Cowboy. 


240 


MEXICO 


rich  in  their  attire.  Whether  it  be  the  fine  lace  mantilla 
or  the  Parisian  hat  which  the  far-distant-from-her 
senorita  wears,  as  in  temple  or  plaza  she  takes  her 
dainty  way,  or  the  pretty  frock  or  delicate  shoes,  the 
poor  woman  of  the  peon,  or  the  mujer  of  the  petty  shop- 
keeper, casts  no  envious  glance — but  no,  that  would  not 
be  true ! She  casts  them,  but  she  will  not  strive  to 
imitate.  Is  there  not  some  virtue  in  such  non-emula- 
tion, or  is  it  but  the  spirit  of  a deadened  race  ? Yet 
this  rather  sombre  and  unattractive  apparel  is  found  more 
among  the  peon  class  ; the  Indian  girl  in  some  parts  of 
Mexico — as  at  Tehuantepec — wears  a handsome  native 
costume,  derived  from  Aztec  days,  at  holiday  time. 

The  reboso,  or  shawl,  is  a useful  article  of  clothing  of 
the  women  of  this  class.  We  shall  meet  her  trudging 
along  dusty  roads  or  over  steep  mountain  trails,  sad- 
faced and  patient,  with  her  baby  slung  behind  her  in 
a reboso  tied  round  her  waist ; or  possibly  she  has  utilised 
it  to  collect  some  scanty  leiia,  or  firewood,  from  among 
the  dry  scrub  of  the  arroyo,  just  as  her  man  uses  his 
serape  as  a universal  hold-all  on  occasions  for  potatoes, 
maize,  or  other  articles  which  he  has  purchased  at  the 
village  market. 

The  complexion  of  the  Mexican  peon  class  is  generally 
exceedingly  dark,  approaching  coffee-colour,  although 
they  have,  of  course,  no  strain  of  African  blood  in  their 
composition.  But  the  types  of  faces  vary  much  for  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  country — due  to  the  numerous  distinct 
races.  Some  purely  aboriginal  faces  are  almost  clear-cut 
and  attractive,  especially  among  the  women.  The  peon 
women,  too,  are  often  soft  and  pretty,  and  attract,  and 
are  attracted,  by  the  foreigner.  Near  the  lines  of  the 
railroads  the  progeny  of  Mexican  women — Anglo-Saxon 
in  type — are  often  seen  ! 

The  Mexicans,  peones  and  Indians,  have  a remarkable 
aptitude — like  those  other  peoples  of  aboriginal  blood  in 
America,  as  Peru — for  making  things  by  hand  which 
require  care  and  patience.  The  exquisite  figures  with 
delicately  carved  features  and  dress,  pottery,  woven 


NATIVE  WOMEN  OF  TEHUANTEPEC:  ORDINARY  DRESS  AND  CHURCH- 
GOING COSTUMES. 


MEXICAN  LIFE  AND  TRAVEL  241 


material,  as  mats  and  pouches,  straw  (and  Panama)  hats, 
and  so  forth,  are  such  in  delicacy  and  texture  as  it  is 
improbable  could  be  made  by  the  workmen  of  Europe. 

Indeed,  the  elements  of  care  and  patience  are  much 
developed  among  these  semi-civilised  peoples.  A Mexican 
peon  will  not  miss  his  way  on  the  plains  or  in  the  moun- 
tains— the  least  indication  will  serve  his  recollection  of 
the  route,  and,  indeed,  it  is  not  necessary  to  enlarge  upon 
the  aborigine’s  natural  science  of  woodcraft.  Moreover, 
the  peon  will  carry  any  delicate  object — a theodolite  or 
barometer,  or  other  scientific  instrument,  for  example — 
with  such  care  over  the  roughest  and  most  precipitous 
places  that  it  will  never  be  injured,  and  where  in  similar 
situations,  the  clumsy  European  or  American  would 
inevitably  bring  it  to  disaster. 

The  Mexicans  are  dexterous  in  pottery-making,  and 
they  fashion  great  ollas  to  a wonderfully  symmetrical 
form  without  other  appliance  than  that  of  a small  wooden 
paddle  or  beater,  with  which  the  red  earth-mortar  is 
shaped  and  patted  into  form.  This  method,  indeed,  dates 
from  Aztec  time,  when  there  was  no  potter’s  wheel.  They 
are  sun-dried  first  and  then  baked.  The  makers  of  these, 
orthe  vendors,  carry  numbers  of  them  about  bound  up  in 
crates,  a huge  load  on  their  backs  ; and  as  they  are  much 
in  demand,  the  women  rush  out  of  their  houses  eager  to 
purchase,  as  the  o//a-carriers  enter  the  villages.  These 
huge  pots  are  mainly  used  for  carrying  water  from  the 
spring,  and  with  a reboso  or  shawl  as  a pad  upon  their 
shoulder  or  their  head,  the  women  walk  gracefully  along 
with  their  heavy  burden  of  the  necessary  water-supply, 
at  morning  or  evening. 

The  peon  is  ever  ready  to  exchange  work  for  play,  or 
indeed  to  shelve  the  former  altogether  at  times,  and  the 
numerous  feast-days — the  dias  de fiesta — which  are  the 
despair  of  the  foreign  employer  of  labour  in  Mexico,  fall 
in  well  with  this  disposition.  The  spectacle  of  the  bull- 
fight appeals  greatly  to  him,  ever  the  national  sport. 
Even  in  the  small  villages  and  haciendas,  remote  from 
the  capitals,  bull-fighting  is  the  favourite  sport,  and  local 


242 


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toreros  from  among  the  middle-class  young  men  of  the 
place  enter  the  arena  to  display  their  valour.  A bull- 
ring  is  easily  made  in  the  plaza,  or  a corral  or  court- 
yard, and  young  bulls,  sometimes  with  their  horns 
blunted  to  render  the  pastime  less  dangerous,  are  harried 
about  the  improvised  arena  in  the  usual  style,  th e picadores, 
bandilleros  and  capeadores  all  taking  up  their  office  in 
approved  style.  The  sport  tries  the  mettle  of  these 
aficionados,  as  the  amateur  bull-fighters  are  termed,  and 
many,  considering  discretion  the  better  part  of  valour, 
promptly  retreat  and  hurriedly  climb  the  barrier  as  the 
angry  bovine  makes  his  entrance  to  the  ring.  As  a rule, 
however,  the  young  Spanish-Mexicans  show  a bold  front 
to  the  animal.  Is  this  not  the  sacred  and  national  sport 
of  the  land  of  their  forefathers  ? Does  not  the  sangre 
espahola  run  in  their  veins  ? None  so  low  as  to  turn 
before  a bull,  or  if  he  does  the  howls  of  the  peon 
spectators  who  line  the  walls  will  make  him  blush  for 
shame. 

In  such  a scene  I found  myself  on  one  occasion. 
A remote  hacienda,  and  bull-fight,  of  aficionado  nature, 
inaugurated  in  honour  of  some  occasion  of  birthday  or 
other  anniversary  of  the  proprietor,  whose  guest  I was. 
Some  lively  bulls  were  performing  in  the  arena,  and 
more  than  one  ambitious  amateur  bull-fighter  had  retired 
the  worse  for  his  temerity.  “ Senor,"  said  one  of  the 
guests  turning  to  me,  “ doubtless  you  would  like  to  try 
your  hand  ! " The  idea  met  with  instant  approval  by  the 
others  present,  and  the  word  went  round  that  the  ingles 
was  to  enter  the  ring.  I confess  the  invitation  did  not 
appeal  to  me.  The  bull  at  that  moment  occupying  the 
arena  had  already  drawn  blood  from  one  of  his  tor- 
mentors, who  was  outside  repairing  his  injuries,  and 
the  animal  stood  in  the  centre  of  the  space,  lashing  his 
tail  and  throwing  earth  over  his  shoulder  after  the  manner 
of  his  kind,  what  time  he  wrathfully  eyed  the  audience. 
My  host — he  was  a Spaniard,  a large  landowner — possibly 
seeing  some  disinclination  reflected  on  my  face,  inter- 
posed : "There  is  no  shame  in  refusing,”  he  said.  “ It  is 


MEXICAN  LIFE  AND  TRAVEL  243 


not  to  be  expected  that  an  Englishman  knows  anything 
about  this  sport.”  But  the  ladies  of  the  party  looked,  I 
thought,  disappointed,  and  the  peones  around  the  walls 
were  already  shouting  my  name,  and  calling  upon  me  to 
“ entrar”  ! This  would  never  do.  “Senores,”  I said  in 
the  most  grandiloquent  Spanish  I could  muster,  “ you 
are  much  mistaken  if  you  think  an  Englishman  is  any 
more  afraid  of  a bull  than  a Mexican  or  a Spaniard  ” ; 
and,  taking  a proffered  pair  of  banderillas,  I descended 
from  the  platform  and  entered  the  arena. 

The  cheers  and  yells  which  arose  from  the  peon  audience 
were  deafening,  and  then  an  ominous  calm.  The  bull 
advanced  towards  me  and — I must  confess  it — loomed 
large  as  a locomotive  ! But  perhaps  fortune  favours  the 
brave,  and  whether  from  often  having  seen  it  done  or 
whether  from  good  luck  alone,  I placed  the  decorated 
banderillas  successfully  in  the  animal's  neck,  and  instantly 
leaped  aside  with  instinctive  agility,  having  felt  the 
breath  from  his  nostrils  upon  my  face,  whilst  the  animal, 
smarting  with  the  pain  from  the  barbed  points,  bounded 
some  paces  away,  and  the  audience  cheered  itself  hoarse 
and  gave  repealed  vivas  for  the  ingles.  Now  was  the 
moment  to  retire  in  “ peace  with  honour,”  but  desirous 
of  showing  how  little  I cared  for  the  animal — a sentiment 
I did  not  really  feel — I turned  my  back  to  the  bull,  and 
ostentatiously  unrolled  a Havana  cigar  from  its  lead-foil 
covering,  and  calmly  cutting  off  the  end,  I proceeded  to 
light  it.  The  bull  saw  it.  With  a bound  he  was  upon 
me,  and  as  I turned  to  leap  aside  his  horns  passed  clean 
under  my  waistcoat  and  shirt,  and  ripped  them  open  to 
the  flesh.  Hurled  aside  by  the  impact,  I lost  my  balance 
and  staggered  wildly,  but  faced  the  brute  again,  whilst 
deafening  yells — whether  of  delight  at  possible  disaster  or 
encouragement  to  go  on,  I could  not  tell — arose  from  the 
spectators  who  thronged  the  barriers.  But  up  came  the 
capeadores,  and  diverting  the  animal’s  attention  as  was 
their  office,  I retired,  not  without  dignity,  and  received  the 
congratulations  of  my  friends,  and  a Spanish  sash  from 
the  presiding  “ queen  ” of  the  entertainment.  But  I 


244 


MEXICO 


took  no  credit  for  it  myself ; rather  I felt  that  I had  done 
wrong  and  barely  escaped  punishment,  in  countenancing 
and  taking  part  in  what  every  Englishman  must  consider 
an  uncivilising  form  of  sport. 

Horsemanship  and  its  accompanying  callings  play  a 
prominent  part  in  rural  life  in  Mexico.  The  hacendado, 
or  estate  owner,  or  ranchero,  mounts  his  horse  directly 
after  early  morning  coffee,  in  order  to  make  the  round  of 
his  plantations.  The  vaquero,  or  cowboy  of  Mexico,  is 
possibly  the  most  expert  horseman  in  the  world,  and  the 
method  of  training  the  horse  to  the  lightest  touch  of  the 
rein,  and  the  comfortable  yet  swift  paso,  or  rapid  march 
to  which  the  animal  is  trained,  are  such  as  the  foreign 
observer  notes  with  interest.  Indeed,  is  he  wise  he 
adopts  this  paso  himself,  instead  of  the  English  trot. 

A distinctive  riding  dress  is  used  by  the  Mexican  horse- 
man— the  charro  costume,  which  is  a remarkable  and 
even  gorgeous  habiliment,  both  as  regards  man  and 
horse.  The  short  coat  and  tightly-fitting  trousers  are 
made  of  soft  deerskin,  tanned  to  a rich  burnt-sienna  hue. 
Down  the  edges  of  the  coat  and  upon  its  lappels  a 
border  of  luxuriant  gold  or  silver  lace  is  worked,  and 
round  the  buttonhole  similar  profuse  ornament  is  planted, 
and  upon  the  cuffs.  A stripe  of  intricately  patterned 
gold  lace  runs  down  the  seams  of  the  trousers,  which 
latter,  tight-fitting  at  the  top,  are  adjusted  very  closely  at 
the  calf  of  the  leg.  For  riding  in  rough  country  a further 
leg-covering  is  worn  ; a kind  of  loose  trousers  put  over 
the  others  and  buckled  round  the  waist,  called  chaparreras, 
made  and  ornamented  with  similar  material.  The 
crowning  glory  of  the  whole  is  the  huge  Mexican  hat. 
This  is  made  of  thick  beaver-looking  felt,  with  a soft  silky 
surface.  Its  form  is  well  known  with  a very  high  taper- 
ing dome-like  crown  and  very  broad  brim.  This  great 
headgear  is  also  profusely  ornamented  with  gold  or  silver 
lace,  worn  principally  by  the  rancheros,  and  the  owner's 
initials  are  generally  worked  upon  the  front  of  the  crown 
in  large  gold  letters.  The  hat  is  of  considerable  weight. 
To  return  to  the  lower  members  again,  the  feet  are 


MEXICAN  LIFE  AND  TRAVEL  245 


armed  with  a pair  of  spurs  of  appalling  size  and  weight, 
the  “wheel”  portion  being  several  inches  in  diameter, 
and  the  whole  weighing  several  pounds  each.  These  are 
often  of  steel  inlaid  with  gold  or  silver,  and  are  buckled 
upon  the  foot  with  an  elaborate  strap  and  embossed 
medallion.  These  spurs  do  not  lacerate  the  horse,  as 
their  points  are  blunt.  The  effect  of  the  whole  dress  is 
almost  dazzling,  but  the  big  hat  set  over  the  tight  trousers 
and  short  coat  gives  a somewhat  top-heavy  appearance. 

The  trappings  of  the  horse  are  not  unworthy  of  the 
gorgeous  habiliments  of  the  jinete,  or  horseman.  The 
Mexican  montura,  or  saddle,  is  of  beautifully  tanned 
leather  of  a high  colour,  and  profusely-embroidered  with 
silver  patterns  and  ornamentations,  and  the  whole  is 
exceedingly  heavy.  It  is,  however,  remarkably  comfort- 
able, and  “the  horse  carries  the  weight,”  the  Mexican  will 
inform  you  if  you  criticise  its  bulk  in  comparison  with 
an  English  saddle.  For  work  in  the  country  no  expe- 
rienced traveller  would  ever  think  of  using  the  English 
form  of  saddle.  In  Mexico  or  South  American  countries 
it  is  altogether  unsuitable,  both  for  horse  and  rider,  giving 
a maximum  of  fatigue  and  minimum  of  comfort.  Also 
the  heavy  Mexican  bit  and  single  rein  are  better  for  travel 
in  these  regions,  as  ever  used  by  the  natives.  This  bit  is 
not  necessarily  cruel,  and  in  fact  the  Mexican  horses  are 
so  remarkably  trained  as  to  their  mouths,  that  the  faintest 
touch  of  a single  finger  on  the  bridle  is  sufficient  for 
instant  obedience.  As  to  the  huge  spurs  they  are  not 
necessarily  cruel,  indeed  they  are  less  so  than  the  sharp 
English  kind,  which  draw  blood  easily  where  the  native 
instrument  does  not  abrade  the  skin. 

The  remarkable  and  dexterous  management  of  the 
lasso,  or  riata,  by  the  rural  Mexican  is  such  as  fills  the 
beholder  with  admiration  and  surprise  that  so  skilful  a 
combination  of  hemp  and  horseflesh,  managed  by  a 
man’s  hand,  could  exist.  Behold  the  vaquero,  with  his 
riata  whirling  aloft  as  at  full  gallop  he  pursues  a fleeing 
bull  ! Closing  upon  it  a few  yards  away  the  lasso  swings 
its  unerring  coils  through  the  air,  the  noose  descends 


246 


MEXICO 


upon  horns  or  hoofs  at  the  will  of  the  vaquero,  and  it  is 
quite  common  to  lasso  the  two  hind  legs  of  the  animal 
whilst  he  is  in  full  gallop.  And  now  the  horse  plays  his 
intelligent  part.  The  noose  has  fallen  with  the  accuracy 
desired  ; the  vaquero  winds  his  end  rapidly  around  the 
horn  of  the  saddle  ; the  horse  gives  a half-turn  in  the 
quickness  of  thought,  in  obedience  to  his  own  knowledge 
and  a touch  of  the  bridle,  so  presenting  his  flank  and  a 
long  base  to  the  direction  of  the  strain  ; the  rope  tightens 
tense  and  smoking  with  the  pull  ; horse  and  rider  stand 
unmoved,  but  the  great  bulk  of  the  arrested  bovine  falls 
prone  to  the  ground.  It  is  an  art,  a wonderful  dexterity 
we  have  witnessed,  acquired  from  birth.  I ambitiously 
tried  it  once,  but  failed  to  turn  the  horse  quickly  enough, 
and  was  pulled  over  to  the  ground.  Of  sports  on  horse- 
back the  Mexicans  indulge  in  several.  Mark  our  friend 
the  ranchero,  in  his  holiday  dress,  upon  a dia  de  fiesta. 
He  is  going  to  show  usthe“raya.”  His  man  marks  a 
spot  on  the  flat  ground  ; the  horseman  retires  with  his 
steed  to  a short  distance,  put  spurs  to  the  animal,  comes 
thundering  along  towards  us  at  full  gallop,  and  as  he 
reaches  the  mark  on  the  soil  he  suddenly  draws  rein,  and 
the  obedient  horse  putting  his  legs  rigidly  together, 
slides  forward  on  his  hoofs  with  his  own  momen- 
tum, scoring  out  a mark  about  his  own  length  on  the 
ground,  and  stops  dead  without  moving  a muscle.  This 
mark  is  the  “ raya.”  Another  diversion  is  that  where 
gaily-be-ribboned  chickens — alive — are  provided  by  the 
novias,  or  sweethearts  of  the  young  men  : and  these, 
mounted  on  their  steeds,  ride  fast  and  furious  to  capture 
the  bird  from  the  one  who  holds  it.  The  unfortunate 
chicken  is  generally  torn  to  pieces,  and  sometimes  in 
jealous  anger  and  rivalry  other  blood  is  shed  than  that 
of  the  innocent  bird  ! 

The  riata  at  times  serves  the  Mexican  as  a lethal 
weapon.  Perhaps  a quarrel  between  two  hot-blooded 
vaqueros  has  taken  place.  One  draws  his  revolver — if  his 
circumstances  permit  him  the  possession  of  so  expensive 
a weapon,  and  they  are  generally  carried — whilst  the 


MEXICAN  LIFE  AND  TRAVEL  247 


other  lays  hand  to  his  riata.  It  might  be  supposed  that 
the  man  with  the  revolver  would  triumph,  but  woebetide 
him  if  he  fails  to  bring  down  his  enemy — both  are  dart- 
ing about  on  their  agile  horses — before  the  chambers  are 
exhausted,  for  the  other,  whirling  the  rope  aloft,  lassoes 
him,  and  putting  spurs  to  his  own  beast,  drags  the  un- 
fortunate man  from  his  horse  and  gallops  away  across 
the  plain,  dragging  him  mercilessly  to  death  among  the 
rocks  and  thorns.  For  the  Mexican  when  aroused  to 
anger — and  his  fiercest  passions  are  generally  the  out- 
come of  love  affairs  or  of  drink — is  mercilessly  cruel  and 
revengeful,  and  thinks  little  of  shedding  the  blood  of  a 
fellow-creature  in  the  heat  of  a personal  encounter. 
Among  the  lower  class  the  knife,  or  fiuiial,  is  a ready 
weapon,  and  a stab,  whether  in  the  dark  or  in  the  day- 
light, is  a common  way  of  terminating  a personal  ques- 
tion. This  is  the  shadow  of  the  Aztec  war-god  thus 
thrown  across  the  ages  ! Again  it  may  be  said  of  the 
Mexicans — love  blood,  wine,  dust  ! 

Among  the  upper  class  Mexicans  such  matters  are,  of 
course,  unknown,  but  the  challenge  and  the  duel  is  still 
a custom  of  the  country,  as  it  is  throughout  Spanish- 
America  generally.  It  fell  to  my  lot  in  one  Spanish- 
American  country  to  receive  a challenge.  The  gentle- 
man who  thought  himself  aggrieved  formally  sent  two 
friends  to  wait  upon  me,  requesting  that  I would  name 
my  seconds  and  select  weapons.  There  was  something 
operatic  about  the  matter  to  my  mind,  although  they 
appeared  to  be  in  earnest,  and  I could  not  help  remind- 
ing my  two  visitors  of  the  proposal  of  a famous  American 
humourist  regarding  a choice  of  weapons  in  such  a case 
— “ brick-bats  at  half-a-mile,  or  gatling-guns,”  or  some- 
thing of  that  nature.  However,  they  would  not  be 
turned  from  their  purpose  even  when  I seriously  asked 
if  they  really  desired  the  shedding  of  gore.  1 gravely 
replied  that  Englishmen  did  not  enter  into  such  affairs 
and  that  I considered  it  uncivilised  ; and  absolutely 
refused  to  have  anything  to  do  with  them.  This  they 
pretended  to  attribute  to  cowardice,  and  said  that  in  such 


248 


MEXICO 


a case  I should  be  exposed  to  affront  or  attack  in  the 
street,  to  which  I made  reply  that  I expected  to  be  able 
to  take  care  of  myself  and  to  punish  any  one  who  should 
dare  to  attempt  such  a course.  I easily  gathered  that  an 
elaborate  duel  was  in  their  minds,  a show  or  scene,  such 
the  Latin  races  love  and  the  Anglo-Saxon  abhors,  and  I 
accused  them  of  this.  At  length,  in  order  to  get  rid  of 
them  I made  the  following  proposal  : “ If  your  friend  is 
really  desirous  that  his  blood  or  mine  shall  be  shed,  let 
him  meet  me  alone — I want  no  seconds,  nor  friends  nor 
any  other  fanfare.  I go  out  every  morning  on  horseback 
along  a certain  mountain  road.  To-morrow  I will  go 
alone — let  your  friend  meet  me,  also  alone,  and  there, 
without  more  witnesses  than  Heaven,  we  can  settle  all 
accounts.”  This  grandiloquent-sounding  exhortation 
had  the  advantage  of  coming  straight  from  the  heart ; it 
was  what  I had  resolved  to  do,  and  moreover  my  side  was 
the  just  one.  The  two  seconds  departed  without  much 
comment,  and  on  the  following  morning  I mounted  my 
horse  and  went  out  alone,  along  the  described  road. 
But  in  the  front  holster  of  the  saddle  there  was  a long- 
barrelled  Colts  revolver,  and  the  Winchester  carbine  I had 
occasionally  brought  down  a deer  with  was  strapped  in 
its  usual  place  alongside  the  saddle.  Yet  upon  all  that 
expanse  of  road  not  a soul  did  I meet,  neither  that  day 
nor  on  the  several  following  ones  during  which  I 
remained  in  the  vicinity. 

But  such  matters  are  comparatively  rare,  and  the 
Spanish-American  is  generally  a warm  and  courteous 
friend,  with  a considerable  regard  for  Englishmen,  and 
ever  ready  to  show  his  hospitality,  and  those  general 
qualities  which  are  ever  esteemed  of  the  Caballero. 

The  riata,  which  appliance  or  weapon  has  been 
described,  is  ever  the  accompaniment  of  the  Mexican 
horseman,  and  part  of  his  equipment.  No  rider  would 
ever  go  forth  without,  for  its  multiplicity  of  uses  in 
woodcraft  and  travel  is  remarkable.  It  is  one  of  the 
main  accoutrements  of  the  rurales,  the  fine  body  of 
county  police  which  were  called  into  being  by  President 


MEXICAN  LIFE  AND  TRAVEL  249 


Diaz.  At  the  time  of  the  war  with  the  French  of 
Maximilian  the  riata  was  sometimes  employed  by  the 
Mexican  soldiers  with  deadly  effect  in  foraging  or  scout- 
ing parties.  Two  Mexicans,  each  with  the  end  of  a riata 
wound  round  the  horn  of  his  saddle,  would  charge 
suddenly  from  ambush  upon  some  unsuspecting  Franceses, 
tearing  them  from  their  horses  with  the  taut  rope. 
“ The  Mexicans  have  a terrible  and  barbarous  weapon 
— the  riata  ! ” — was  recorded  by  the  French  soldiery  at 
that  time. 

As  to  foreigners  in  Mexico  at  the  present  time,  those 
most  in  evidence  are  the  Spaniards  and  the  Americans 
of  the  United  States.  Spaniards  are  continually  arriving, 
and  they  generally  settle  down  and  make  good  and  useful 
citizens,  and  often  amass  much  wealth.  They  are  not, 
however,  of  the  upper  or  cultivated  class  from  Spain,  and 
their  manners  and  language  are  far  inferior  to  those  of 
the  cultured  Mexicans.  The  Spaniard  of  a certain  class 
is  possibly  the  worst-spoken  man  to  be  met  with.  His 
speech  teems  with  indecent  words  and  profane  oaths, 
and  whilst  he  does  not  mean  to  use  these  except  as  a 
mere  habit,  it  marks  him  out  from  other  races,  even 
from  the  American  with  his  own  peculiar  and  constant 
“ god-dam  ” and  other  characteristic  terms,  both  profane 
and  indecent.  The  most  noticeable  and  objectionable 
American  habit,  however,  which  is  shared  by  the 
Mexican  and  South  American  to  the  full,  is  that  of 
continually  expectorating.  The  Anglo-American  never 
leaves  it  off,  whilst,  as  to  the  Spanish-American,  it  is 
necessary  to  put  up  notices  in  the  churches  in  some 
places  requesting  people  “ not  to  spit  in  the  house  of 
God  ! ” There  is  a considerable  population  of  Americans 
in  Mexico,  and  some  of  these  are  of  doubtful  class  and 
antecedents.  But  it  would  be  unjust  to  pretend  that 
only  the  Americans  have  furnished  a doubtful  element 
for  Mexico’s  floating  population.  The  shores  of  Albion 
have  furnished  a good  many  examples  in  the  form  of 
“unspeakable”  Scotchmen,  Englishmen,  and  Irishmen, 
at  times.  Yet  the  British  name  has,  as  a rule,  been  well 


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established  throughout  Mexico  and  Spanish-America, 
and  the  American  from  the  United  States  has  often 
enjoyed  the  benefit  of  a reputation  he  had  not  earned, 
for,  to  the  native  mind,  the  distinction  between  the  two 
English-speaking  races  is  not  always  apparent  at  first 
sight,  although  it  is  upon  closer  acquaintance. 

Whilst  there  is  a growing  sense  of  respect  and  esteem 
between  the  Mexicans  and  the  Americans,  the  former 
have  never  quite  forgotten  that  the  latter  despoiled  them 
of  an  empire — from  their  point  of  view — by  the  Texan 
war,  half  a century  ago  or  more,  and  only  recently  have 
the  Mexicans  come  to  believe  that  the  big  republic  to  the 
north  no  longer  cherishes  desires  of  further  annexation 
of  territory.  The  Americans,  for  their  part,  have  given 
up  dubbing  the  Mexicans  as  “ greasers,”  and  have 
acknowledged  the  pleasing  and  refined  civilisation  of 
their  southern  neighbours.  The  North  American,  or 
Americano,  is  often  known  in  Mexico  as  the  “Yankee” 
— not  used  in  an  offensive  sense,  but  as  a convenient 
designation.  This  is  varied  by  the  still  less  distinguished 
term  of  “ gringo,”  and  indeed,  both  these  terms  are 
employed,  not  only  in  Mexico,  but  thousands  of  miles 
below,  in  South  America — Ecuador,  Peru,  Chile.  The 
latter  is  not  necessarily  an  opprobrious  term,  and  it  is 
applied  to  all  Anglo-Saxons,  British  or  American,  and, 
indeed,  in  South  America,  to  all  Europeans  of  a fair 
complexion.  Its  derivation  has  been  expounded  by 
various  writers  as  having  come  from  the  words  of  a song 
sung  by  some  British  or  American  sailors  upon  landing 
at  a Mexican  port,  but  the  etymology  seems  doubtful. 
That  of  “Yankee”  is  more  assured — the  corruption  of 
“English,”  or  “Anglais,”  or  “Ingles,”  employed  by  the 
Indians  of  North  America  towards  the  early  settlers. 

Conditions  of  life  and  travel  in  Mexico  vary  greatly 
according  to  the  region  we  may  be  called  upon  to 
traverse.  On  the  great  plateau  such  as  I have  described, 
the  hand  of  civilisation  prevails,  even  if  its  evidences  are 
at  times  far  apart.  In  the  tropical  lowlands,  whether  of 
the  Gulf  or  of  the  Pacific  side  of  the  country,  we  may 


MEXICAN  LIFE  AND  TRAVEL  251 


be  much  more  seriously  thrown  upon  our  own  resources, 
whether  for  food,  transport,  or  habitation.  In  the  State 
of  Guerrero  there  are  yet  large  tracts  of  land  absolutely 
unexplored,  and  the  numerous  tribes  of  Indians  inhabit- 
ing certain  of  the  tropical  regions  are  under  scarcely 
more  than  the  semblance  of  control.  Yet  it  cannot  be 
said  that  they  are  ferocious  or  dangerous.  Some  of  them, 
indeed,  are  cowardly,  and  will  not  even  venture  far  from 
their  villages  for  fear  of  wild  beasts,  whilst  others  form 
the  most  active  and  fearless  guides,  varying  charac- 
teristics which  show  the  wide  range  of  peoples  embodied 
in  the  country,  as  set  forth  in  a previous  chapter.  Whilst 
Mexico  cannot  be  called  a “ sportsman's  paradise,”  there 
is  in  certain  regions  a great  profusion  of  game,  from 
turkeys  to  crocodiles.  The  guajalote,  or  Mexican  wild 
turkey,  with  its  great  red  beard  and  shimmering  blue- 
black  plumage,  is  a conspicuous  inhabitant  of  Tamaulipas 
and  other  wild  regions,  and  its  low  flight  and  plump 
body  render  it  comparatively  easy  of  securing,  whilst 
it  forms  an  excellent  addition  to  the  bill  of  fare.  Huge 
wild  cats  abound  in  the  broken  country,  and  osos, 
or  Mexican  bears.  Of  sport,  adventure,  and  romantic 
travel  we  may  take  our  fill  among  these  semi-tropical 
valleys,  rivers,  and  mountains.  Of  noxious  insects, 
malaria,  wild  beasts  ; of  flooded  streams  and  parched 
deserts ; of  sand-storms,  snow-storms,  and  rain-storms  ; of 
precipitous  mountains,  tracts,  and  dangerous  bogs  ; of 
gloomy  forest  and  appalling  crags  ; of  delay,  danger,  and 
hardship,  we  shall  have  all  that  adventurous  spirits  may 
seek,  and  count  the  time  well  lost.  Of  pleasure  in  nature 
and  solitude  we  shall  have  much,  and  of  the  study  of 
primitive  and  civilised  man,  and  of  coquettish  maidens 
and  Indian  maids,  we  shall  carry  away  enduring  recollec- 
tions. 

We  are  in  camp.  The  exigencies  of  our  travel  have 
bid  us  take  up  our  abode  in  that  hastily-constructed  jacal, 
or  hut  built  of  branches  and  plastered  outside  with  mud, 
such  as  the  peon  knows  cunningly  how  to  contrive. 
Indeed,  in  such  habitations  a large  part  of  Mexico’s 


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fifteen  million  inhabitants  dwell.  I inspect  the  well- 
ventilated  walls,  for  numerous  open  chinks  are  left. 
“The  wind  will  come  in,”  I say.  “Yes,  senor,”  Jose,  my 
^o«-constructor,  replies  with  unconscious  wit,  “ it  will 
not  only  come  in  but  it  will  go  out " — and  he  proceeds 
to  remedy  the  defect. 

Our  residence  in  this  spot  may  be  for  some  weeks 
whilst  at  our  leisure  we  examine  mines,  hydrographic 
conditions,  flora,  or  other  matters  of  scientific  or  com- 
mercial interest  which  our  self-chosen  exile  demands. 
The  simple  habitation  is  pitched  when  possible,  of 
course,  near  to  a water  supply,  a clear  running  stream, 
or  lake,  and  if  the  latter  we  can  take  a morning  plunge. 
This  excites  the  surprise  of  our  mozo,  or  servant,  and  the 
other  men  in  our  employ. 

“ No,  senor,”  they  hasten  to  urge  us,  “ it  is  dangerous 
to  bathe  the  body.”  This  objection  to  the  use  of  cold 
water  in  this  way  does  not  arise  from  a dislike  of  cleanli- 
ness necessarily.  The  traveller  in  Western  America  soon 
finds  that  care  must  be  exercised  in  bathing  in  the  open, 
for  the  effect  of  the  sun  and  the  water  is  to  bring  on 
malaria  sometimes,  which  is  more  easily  acquired  than 
cured. 

On  the  edge  of  our  lake  great  white  herons  stand  in 
the  cool  of  the  early  morning,  and  the  wild  ducks 
swimming  lazily  on  its  surface  invite  a shot.  If  it  is 
winter  and  we  are  upon  the  high  regions  of  the  great 
plateau,  the  lake  may  freeze  at  its  edges,  imprisoning  the 
unfortunate  birds  in  the  ice.  The  heat  of  the  midday  sun 
at  these  high  elevations  is  succeeded  at  night  by  the 
bitter  cold  of  the  rarefied  air,  and  the  white  drill  suit  we 
have  worn  must  be  supplemented  by  heavier  garments. 

The  sun  sets  in  gorgeous  splendour  over  the  plain  and 
upon  the  grey-blue  hills,  and  the  short  tropic  twilight 
gives  place  to  darkness,  save  perchance  as  the  silvery 
moon  of  Mexico  may  cast  its  peaceful  beams  over  the 
desolate  landscape.  Cigarettes  and  coffee  are  finished. 
No  sound  breaks  the  silence  ; our  men's  tales  are  all  told 
as  they  crouch  round  the  camp  fire.  We  have  sought 


MEXICAN  LIFE  AND  TRAVEL  253 


our  couch  and  turned  in,  bidding  the  peones  look  to  the 
horses,  which,  tethered  near  at  hand,  champ  their  oats  or 
maize  contentedly,  giving  from  time  to  time  that  half- 
human sign  with  which  the  equine  expresses  his  con- 
tentment and  comfortable  weariness.  All  is  still.  Sleep 
falls  upon  us.  . . . Hark  ! what  is  that  ? A long  mourn- 
ful howl  comes  from  the  plain  and  winds  through  the 
canyon,  and  is  repeated  in  chorus.  ‘‘What  is  it,  Jose  ? " 
I call  to  my  mozo  and  the  other  men.  “Coyotes, 
Senor,”  he  replies,  “they  are  crying  to  heaven  for  rain.” 
Of  course,  I had  forgotten  for  a moment  that  they  have 
this  habit,  and  the  sound  seemed  almost  unearthly. 

To  return  to  the  game.  We  are  going  a-hunting  to- 
day. The  great  barren  plains  and  sterile  rocky  ribs  which 
intersect  them,  the  stony  foothills  and  the  dry  arroyos  do 
not  seem  to  offer  much  prospect  of  sport.  But  our 
friend  the  Mexican  hacendado,  who  has  ridden  up  from  his 
hacienda  for  the  purpose  of  inviting  us,  assures  us  to  the 
contrary.  And,  indeed,  his  words  are  soon  justified. 
He  and  his  men  have  led  us  far  away  towards  the  head 
of  the  canyon,  and  the  dry  stream-bed  is  fringed  with 
mesquite  and  cactus  which  might  offer  shelter  to  quarry 
of  some  nature.  A dozen  dark  forms  start  suddenly  from 
the  shadow  of  the  bank  upon  whose  verge  we  stand.  Bang  ! 
bang  ! bang  ! In  the  twinkling  of  an  eye  we  had  dis- 
mounted, flung  our  horses'  reins  to  the  attendant  mozos, 
and  pointed  our  Winchesters.  Several  of  the  dark  forms 
lie  upon  the  sand  below,  inert ; the  others,  already  squeal- 
ing far  enough  off,  scrambling  away.  What  are  they  ? 
“ Javelines , Senor,”  the  mozos  make  reply.  They  are 
peccaries.  A good  bag  indeed  and  excellent  eating,  as 
their  ribs,  roasted  over  a fire  at  the  bottom  of  the  arroyo, 
attest.  Later  on  we  look  round  for  our  host,  but  he  is 
away  after  a plump  venado — deer — which,  passing  near  at 
hand,  proves  too  strong  for  the  sportsman's  instinct.  But 
the  night  falls  ere  he  returns.  “ Never  mind,”  is  his 
greeting,  “ although  we  have  to  sleep  here  we  may  eat 
good  venison,”  and  across  the  horse  of  his  mozo  lies  the 
drooping  body  of  the  deer,  its  eyes  glazed  in  death,  and 


254 


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the  blood  still  dripping  from  the  bullet  wound  which  laid 
it  low. 

And  so  our  hacendado  friend,  who  owns  the  land  we  are 
upon  for  leagues  away,  and  knows  it  well,  leads  us  to  a 
cave  snugly  hidden  in  the  rocky  wall,  with  a floor  of 
purest  quartz  sand,  and  a limpid  rivulet  flowing  thereby. 
The  saddle  bags  are  brought  in  ; they  are  full  of  bread 
and  tinned  meats  and  native  fruits,  brandy  and  wine  from 
his  own  vineyards.  We  are  his  honoured  guest,  and  he 
plies  us  with  all  this  fare,  not  forgetting  the  venison  roast- 
ing outside.  And  filled  and  comforted  with  good  food 
we  discourse  far  into  the  night  of  weird  things  tinged 
with  our  friend’s  strange  superstition  and  curious  lore. 
Outside  the  coyotes  howl,  far  away  on  the  plain,  and  the 
mournful  cry  of  the  tecolote,  or  Mexican  night  owl,  faintly 
reaches  my  ears,  as,  wrapped  in  my  blankets  with  a 
saddle  for  a pillow,  I fall  asleep  upon  the  cavern  floor. 


CHAPTER  XIII 


MINERAL  WEALTH.  ROMANCE  AND  ACTUALITY. 


Forced  labour  in  the  mines — Silver  and  bloodshed — History  of  dis- 
covery— Guanajuato — the  veta  Madre — Spanish  methods — Durango 
— Zacatecas — Pachuca — The  patio  process — Quicksilver  from  Peru — 
Cornish  miners’  graves — Aztec  mining — Spanish  advent — Old  mining 
methods — Romance  of  mining — The  Cerro  de  Mercado — Guana- 
juato and  Hidalgo — Real  del  Monte — Religion  and  mining — Silver  and 
churches — Subterranean  altars — Mining  and  the  nobility — Spanish 
mining  school — Modern  conditions — The  mineral-bearing  zone — 
Distribution  of  minerals  geographically — Silver — The  patio  process — 
Gold-mining  and  production — El  Oro  and  other  districts — Copper — 
Other  minerals — General  mineral  production — Mining  claims  and 
laws. 


“ Grant  me,  oh  ! rock-ribbed  matrix,  here  to  know 
Thy  minerall’d  sanctuary  ; 

To  none  but  me  the  sesame  disclose, 

Un-oped  since  chaos  fled  ! ” 


There  is  much  of  interest  and  something  of  pathos 
and  romance  attending  the  old  mines  of  Spanish- 
American  countries — Mexico,  Peru,  and  others.  They 
are  so  interwoven  with  the  history  of  these  countries, 
so  redolent  of  the  past,  and  of  the  hope,  despair,  piety, 
greed  of  the  old  taskmasters  who  worked  them,  and  of 
the  generations  of  toiling  Indian  workers  who  spent  their 
lives  in  wresting  treasure  from  the  bowels  of  the  earth. 
Religion,  superstition,  cruelty  have  marked  their  exploita- 
tion in  past  ages,  and  as  we  explore  their  grim  abandoned 
corridors,  and  pass  half  fearfully  their  yawning  pits,  our 
imagination  might  conjure  up  some  phantoms  of  those 

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256 


MEXICO 


who  toiled  amid  these  old  scenes  of  man's  sweat  and 
avarice. 

The  cruelty  innate  in  the  Spanish  race  has  been  shown 
in  their  mining  methods,  and  the  native  population  of 
Mexico,  and  in  a larger  scale  of  Peru,  suffered  severely  at 
their  hands.  Guanajuato,  one  of  the  most  famous  and 
richest  of  the  mining  centres  of  Mexico — in  past  times  as 
to-day — bears  in  its  archives  the  stories  of  oppression 
which  marked  the  methods  of  the  Spaniards,  and  may  be 
taken  as  a concrete  example.  It  was  a system  of  slavery 
under  which  these  mines  were  worked — an  atrocious 
system  of  forced  labour  which  took  no  heed  of  Indian 
life,  save  as  it  might  most  cheaply  extract  a given  quantity 
of  gold  or  silver  ore  from  the  pits  and  adits  beneath  the 
ground.  Thousands  of  peones  were  impressed  into  this 
forced  labour ; armed  soldiers  were  stationed  at  the 
entrances  of  these  labyrinths  to  see  that  each  wretched 
serf  deposited  his  sack  of  rock,  under  the  load  of  which 
he  had  toiled  up  fathoms  of  notched  pole,  or  ladder,  from 
the  infernal  regions  below,  panting,  sweating,  expiring, 
and  presently  driven  down  again  by  the  brutal  task- 
masters, jealous  lest  he  might  enjoy  too  much  of  the 
light  of  day  and  so  sacrifice  some  moments  in  the 
delving  amid  the  rocks  which  furnished  the  wealth.  In 
1619,  a law  was  promulgated  in  Guanajuato — it  remains 
upon  the  archives  to  this  day — prohibiting  the  branding 
of  slaves  upon  the  face  ! 

But  these  inhuman  methods  brought  about  their  own 
punishment.  The  great  Valenciana  mine,  opened  in  1760, 
which  for  fifty  years  was  worked  at  a sacrifice  of  human 
life  by  these  methods,  producing  more  than  300  million 
dollars,  became  at  last  the  scene  of  a terrible  vengeance, 
for  the  serfs  rose  in  rebellion  and  massacred  every  white 
man  upon  the  place.  Indeed,  the  brutalities  practised  by 
the  Spanish  mine-owners  largely  influenced  the  revolu- 
tion and  secession  from  the  mother  country. 

For  more  than  three  centuries  there  flowed  from  the 
mines  of  Mexico  and  Peru,  millions  and  millions  of 
silver  and  gold,  which  went  to  fill  the  needy  coffers  of 


MINERAL  WEALTH 


257 


Spain,  to  enrich  a distant  and  callous  or  careless 
monarch,  and  to  prop  up  a moribund  nation.  The 
appalling  system  of  the  mitad  and  the  encomenderos,  by 
which  silver  and  gold  were  extracted  with  indecent  haste, 
form  such  pages  as  can  never  be  erased  from  the  history 
of  metallurgy  in  the  New  World. 

Yet  there  is  another  light  in  which  to  regard  the 
picture  of  Mexican  mining,  and  remembering  that  mining 
operations,  whether  in  the  sixteenth  or  the  twentieth 
century,  whether  in  Spanish-America  or  elsewhere,  ever 
embody  conditions  of  usury  and  oppression,  we  may  turn 
to  this  more  pleasing  aspect.  For  unless  under  grave 
oppression,  the  native  miner,  be  it  on  the  plateau  of 
Anahuac,  or  in  the  Andine  Cordillera,  has  been  a zealous 
worker.  His  picturesque  surroundings,  simple  mode 
of  life,  and  easy-going  disposition,  together  with  the 
pervading  sentimental  attributes  which  his  religion 
lent,  and  the  sunny  skies  under  which  he  toiled,  took 
from  mining  much  of  the  material  brutality  and  grey 
atmosphere  which  enshroud  it  in  Anglo-Saxon  com- 
munities. 

Mining  was  a source  of  enrichment  which  appealed 
strongly  to  the  Spanish  nature,  and  it  must  not  be  for- 
gotten that  to  the  efforts  of  the  men  of  Spain  the  science 
of  mining  owes  much.  And,  indeed,  these  remote  waste 
places  of  the  earth  owe  the  civilisation  they  possess  to  the 
early  work  of  these  Conquistadores.  The  Anglo-Saxon 
world  prides  itself  on  the  great  discoveries  and  exploita- 
tions which  have  marked  epochs  in  its  gold-  and  silver- 
getting history,  Australia,  California,  Nevada,  Africa  ; but 
we  shall  not  forget  that  Mexico  and  Peru  were  yielding 
up  stores  of  gold  and  silver  centuries  before  Captain 
Cook  sailed,  or  before  those  historic  nuggets  were  found 
by  accident  in  Sutter's  mill-stream,  in  the  Californian 
Sierra  region.  Scarcely  six  years  after  the  Conquest  the 
silver  of  Mexico  was  being  eagerly  sought,  and  easily 
found,  with  that  remarkable  olfato  possessed  by  the 
Spaniards.  Shakespeare  was  at  work,  and  Drake  was 
voyaging  under  the  Elizabethan  aegis  at  the  time  when 

18 


258 


MEXICO 


the  great  silver  mines  of  the  Mexican  Sierra  Madre  were 
giving  up  their  rich  ores  to  treatment. 

At  Guanajuato,  one  of  the  most  famous  of  the  silver 
mining  centres,  prospecting  was  begun  in  1525,  only  a 
few  years  after  the  Conquest,  and  the  mining  regions 
still  further  away  to  the  north,  as  those  of  the  famous 
Zacatecas  and  San  Luis  Potosi,  had  already  been 
discovered.  History  relates  that  the  silver  deposits  of 
Guanajuato  were  discovered  as  a result  of  a camp-fire, 
made  by  some  muleteers,  who  found  refined  silver 
among  the  ashes,  melted  from  the  rock  beneath  ! Shortly 
after  the  middle  -of  the  sixteenth  century  the  great  Veta 
Madre,  or  “ mother  lode,”  of  Guanajuato  was  pierced,  with 
an  ore-body  100  feet  wide.  This  place,  which  to-day  boasts 
a population  of  fifty  thousand  souls,  had  begun  to  grow 
and  was  granted  a charter  as  a Villa  Real  at  the  beginning 
of  the  seventeenth  century.  This  before  the  sailing  of  the 
Mayflower ! So,  as  we  look  back  upon  those  strenuous 
times  of  Mexican  mining,  we  shall  see  much  of  good 
arising  from  the  metallurgical  conquest.  We  have  a 
vision  of  fair  cities,  established  within  mountain  fast- 
nesses, within  fertile  plains,  long  centuries  before  the 
advent  of  the  locomotive,  cities  whose  wealth  came  from 
the  fabulous  riches  of  the  great  silver  mines,  whose  ore 
was  quarried  from  its  lodes  and  deposits,  cities  where 
fine  cathedrals  arose,  built  from  the  taxes  levied  upon 
the  product  of  these  mines,  by  which  fortunate  national 
trait  some  good  at  least  was  perpetuated  for  the  inhabi- 
tants and  toilers  who  produced  it.  Does  the  mining 
director  and  shareholder  of  to-day  loosen  his  greedy  and 
capacious  pocket  for  such  works  ? We  might  ask  the 
toiling  nigger — Kaffir,  or  Chinese,  and  his  Jewish  employer 
in  the  mines  of  Africa.  The  Spaniards  did  not  suck  out 
the  wealth  of  Mexico’s  soil  only  to  enrich  a decadent 
monarch  and  his  coffers,  thousands  of  miles  away,  for 
which  we  have  reproached  them.  Some  of  the  wealth 
their  enterprise  produced  formed  beautiful  cities  and  made 
the  desert  blossom  where,  before,  savage  tribes  of  Indians 
roamed  ; and  stimulated  great  thoughts  and  actions  in 


MINERAL  WEALTH 


259 


men  whose  historic  names  remain  upon  the  country's 
history. 

It  was  a laborious  journey  from  Spain  to  Mexico  in 
those  days,  and  mining  was  marked  by  difficulties  due  to 
the  remoteness  of  the  region  from  means  of  com- 
munication, and  also  from  the  hostile  Indian  tribes,  who 
resented  the  advent  of  the  white  man  into  their  territory. 
An  example  of  the  tenacity  and  courage  of  the  invaders 
against  these  odds  is  shown  in  the  founding  of  the  fine 
city  of  Durango,  350  years  ago.  At  that  time  this  region 
was  the  home  of  savage  tribes  of  Indians,  who  continually 
made  raids  upon  the  Spaniards.  A marvellously  rich 
mine,  the  Avino,  worked  as  a huge  open  quarry,  which 
exists  to-day,  was  deeded  by  its  owner  to  those  white 
inhabitants  there  who  would  consent  to  build  their 
houses  together  for  mutual  protection.  Thus  the 
beginning  of  the  city  of  Durango  was  made. 

Another  famous  mining  centre  in  those  early  days, 
just  as  it  is  at  present,  was  Zacatecas,  and  its  name  alone 
conveys  the  idea  of  silver  and  gold.  In  1546  it  was,  that 
a lieutenant  of  Cortes,  traversing  the  country,  arrived 
there,  observed  its  promise  of  mineral  wealth,  and  formed 
a settlement.  So  rapidly  did  the  place  become  renowned 
that,  forty  years  afterwards,  a Royal  Charter  was  given  to 
the  city,  and  a coat  of  arms,  with  the  title,  “ Noble  and 
Loyal."  The  curious  archives  of  the  Alvarado  Mines — 
they  were  worked  by  Fernando  Cortes — which  were 
kept,  and  which  show  the  care  in  these  matters  exercised 
by  the  Spaniards,  still  exist  ; as  is  the  case,  indeed,  with 
the  records  of  many  of  the  great  mining  centres  of  Mexico 
and  Peru.  Here  it  is  shown  that  an  enormous  output  of 
silver  was  made,  the  total  from  1548  to  1867  amounting 
to  nearly  eight  hundred  million  dollars. 

The  great  lodes  of  the  famous  mining  centre  of 
Pachuca,  which  at  the  present  day  are  the  most  productive, 
were  discovered  by  the  companions  of  Cortes  soon  after 
the  Conquest.  But  knowledge  of  the  great  wealth  in 
silver  there  was  held  by  the  Aztecs,  who,  in  fact,  showed 
the  main  veins  to  the  Spaniards.  It  was  here  that 


260 


MEXICO 


Bartolome  de  Medina  discovered  the  famous  method  of 
treating  silver  ores  by  amalgamation  with  quicksilver, 
known  as  the  patio  process,  in  1557.  An  improvement 
on  his  invention  came  from  Peru,  in  1783,  which  was  the 
use  of  mules  instead  of  men  in  treading  out  the  crushed 
ore.  From  far-away  Peru  other  matters  had  come,  as  the 
quicksilver  from  the  great  Huancavelica  mines,  the 
mercury  necessary  for  the  process.  And  the  beautiful 
Peruvian  pepper  trees,  which  were  brought  to  ornament 
the  plaza  of  Pachuca  by  one  of  the  last  of  the  Viceroys 
from  Lima,  form  another  reminiscence  of  the  sister  land 
of  the  Incas,  in  Mexico.  There  is  at  Pachuca  a link  with 
the  world  of  Anglo-Saxon  mining — the  cemetery  where 
to-day  lie  the  bones  of  clever  Cornish  miners,  who,  in 
the  time  of  the  British  revival  of  Mexican  mining,  taught 
the  native  their  more  useful  methods.  There  lie  these 
hardy  sons  of  Cornwall,  “each  in  his  narrow  cell,"  within 
the  foreign  soil  whereon  he  had  laboured. 

What  is  the  earliest  time  at  which  man  began  to  dig 
for  minerals  in  Mexico  ? It  is  not  possible  to  determine 
this,  as  it  is  involved  in  the  obscure  history  of  the  races 
of  prehispanic  days.  But  it  has  been  affirmed  that  the 
method  of  recovering  gold  by  amalgamation  with  quick- 
silver must  have  been  known  to  the  Maya  civilisation 
which  preceded  the  Aztec  times.  This  is  adduced  from 
the  discovery  of  a vessel  containing  quicksilver,  during 
the  excavations,  in  1897,  celebrated  ruins  of 

Palenque,  in  Chiapas.  The  native  miners  of  Mexico 
have  always  won  gold  from  the  rocks,  it  is  stated,  by  the 
method  of  crushing  ore  and  treating  it  with  quicksilver 
in  amalgamation,  and  it  is  considered  that  the  method 
has  not  been  derived  from  the  white  man,  but  was 
handed  down  from  the  Mayas.  Be  this  as  it  may,  the 
early  Mexicans  carried  on  regular  mining  operations, 
extracting  metals  and  metallic  ores  from  the  rocks  by 
means  of  pits  and  galleries,  and  these,  in  some  cases, 
furnished  the  Spaniards,  after  the  Conquest,  with  the 
first  indication  of  the  existence  of  mineral-bearing  veins. 
Gold  was  taken,  however,  among  these  prehistoric  people, 


MINERAL  WEALTH 


261 


mainly  from  the  stream-beds,  or  placer  deposits,  where  it 
had  been  concentrated  by  nature.  Gold  was  used  more 
as  a decorative  or  useful  material  than  as  a medium  of 
currency,  among  the  Aztecs,  as  among  the  Incas  of  Peru. 
However,  in  Mexico,  transparent  quills  full  of  gold-dust 
were  used  as  money.  Gold  ornaments  figured  largely 
in  the  military  pomp  and  domestic  decoration.  The 
wonderful  representations  of  animals  and  plants  which 
they  fashioned,  and  the  remarkable  presents  of  gold  and 
silver  which  Montezuma  made  to  Cortes,  among  them 
two  great  circular  plates  “as  large  as  the  wheel  of  a 
carriage,”  attest  the  relative  abundance  of  the  precious 
metal  which  the  early  Mexican  possessed.  How  similar 
were  these  objects  to  those  which  figured  in  the  dramatic 
scenes  enacted  in  the  Andes  of  Peru  nearly  three  thousand 
miles  away,  a few  years  later,  the  student  will  recollect. 
Cortes  told  Montezuma  that  the  Spaniards  “ suffered  from 
a disease,  which  only  gold  could  cure,”  and  the  Aztec 
monarch  sent  supplies  of  the  yellow  metal  to  alleviate 
this  ! 

In  addition  to  the  mining  and  reduction  of  the  ores  of 
the  three  noble  metals,  gold,  silver,  and  mercury,  which 
these  people  understood  and  practised,  were  similar 
operations  regarding  lead,  copper,  and  tin.  Of  the  two 
latter  they  formed  an  alloy,  and  made  tools  of  the  bronze. 
Small  T-shaped  pieces  of  tin,  moreover,  were  used  as  a 
medium  of  exchange  or  currency.  As  to  iron,  it  appears 
to  be  the  case  that  they  were  unacquainted  with  its  use, 
notwithstanding  that  the  ore  of  the  metal  is  exceedingly 
plentiful.  Nevertheless,  it  is  stated  that  iron  was  mined 
and  wrought  into  use  at  Tula,  the  Toltec  centre,  in  the 
State  of  Jalisco,  long  before  the  advent  of  Cortes  and  the 
Spaniards. 

Regarding  the  subject  of  the  mining  and  metallurgy  of 
the  Aztecs  and  their  predecessors  in  prehispanic  days,  it 
must  be  recollected  that  historical  knowledge  about  it  is 
exceedingly  meagre,  and  the  details  of  their  operations  in 
this  field  of  industry  are  buried  in  much  obscurity. 

The  Spanish  advent  wrought  a marked  change  in  the 


262 


MEXICO 


history  of  mining  in  the  country.  The  Spaniards  began 
to  work  mines  as  early  as  1526,  and  continued  their 
exploitation  until  1810,  the  time  of  the  War  of  Inde- 
pendence, at  which  period  the  value  of  the  yearly  output 
was  27,000,000  dollars.  There  was  a general  expulsion  of 
the  Spaniards  in  1829.  It  was,  however,  in  1700  that  the 
most  marked  period  of  Spanish  mining  began.  The 
production  of  gold  and  silver  from  1522  to  1879,  according 
to  the  most  reliable  authorities,  is  given  approximately 
as  3,725,000,000  dollars,  of  which  gold  formed  4 to  8 
per  cent.  Indeed,  the  staple  product  of  Mexico  has  ever 
been  silver,  in  those  remote  times  as  it  is  to-day,  and  it 
has  been  calculated  that  possibly  one-third  of  the  existing 
quantity  of  silver  in  the  world  has  come  from  the  lodes 
of  the  Sierra  Madre  of  Mexico. 

The  early  Spaniards,  whilst  they  did  not  despise  the 
indication  left  or  given  by  the  Aztecs  in  the  discovery  of 
rich  mines,  struck  out  for  themselves  and  found  the  great 
lodes  which  yielded  fabulous  fortunes  in  silver  to  their 
fortunate  owners.  These  adventurous  spirits  spread  over 
the  whole  of  the  country  bordering  upon  the  Sierra 
Madres,  stimulated  by  the  rich  finds  of  silver  mines 
successively  made  in  one  region  or  another.  They  have 
left  old  workings  in  almost  every  region  where  minerals 
exist,  and  they  extracted  great  bonanzas  with  their 
crude,  old-fashioned  appliances.  Ancient  corkscrew-like 
workings,  analogous  more  to  the  burrowings  of  animals 
than  the  excavations  of  man,  honeycomb  the  crests  of 
lodes  and  veins  in  every  part  of  the  country.  After 
yielding  fortunes  to  their  workers  these  mines  were 
abandoned,  not  because  they  were  worked  out,  but  for 
lack  of  appliances  for  drainage  and  hoisting,  and  in  this 
condition,  flooded  or  caved-in,  remain  innumerable  of 
their  old  treasure-chambers  to  this  day. 

But  not  all  the  Spaniards’  workings  were  of  this  nature. 
Magnificent  tunnels  were  run  by  them  into  the  bowels  of 
hills,  tunnels  whose  enormous  dimensions  excite  the 
wonder  of  the  mining  engineer  of  to-day.  In  some 
instances  these  socavones,  or  great  adits,  are  of  such  a 


MINERAL  WEALTH 


263 


size  that  a mounted  horseman  can  enter  with  ease,  or  a 
locomotive  might  easily  traverse  them.  Indeed,  the 
engineer  of  to-day  hesitates  to  attack  the  mountain  sides 
with  such  bold  adits  as  the  Spaniard,  with  inferior 
materials,  drove  into  them.  Similar  tunnels  were  driven 
by  the  Spaniards  in  some  of  the  famous  mines  of  Peru.1 

Ancient  ore-reduction  works,  arrastres,  canals,  ditches, 
excavations,  tunnels,  pits,  ruined  buildings,  and  in  some 
cases  falling  church  walls,  all  of  this  bygone  age,  are 
encountered  throughout  the  country,  scattered  far  and 
wide.  Those  who  lived  and  moved  and  had  their  being 
therein  lie  mingled  with  the  dust  these  centuries  past, 
and  kind  nature  has  often  covered  up  the  evidences  of 
their  handiwork  with  flower  and  foliage. 

There  was  a steady  flow  of  the  two  precious  metals  to 
the  City  of  Mexico  from  the  innumerable  mines  of  the 
regions  which  produced  them.  To  attempt  to  describe 
these  mines,  even  those  renowned  for  their  richness, 
would  fill  a chapter  alone.  Fantastic  displays  of  wealth 
are  recorded  by  the  owners  of  some  of  the  great  silver- 
producing  mines — the  bridal  chambers  of  a palace,  lined 
by  the  father  of  a bride  with  silver  bars ; the  footpath  from 
the  plaza  to  the  church  paved  with  great  silver  ingots, 
for  the  bridal  party. 

A famous  hill  of  iron — standing  on  the  plains  of  Dur- 
ango, stands  out  also  from  the  historical  vista  of  metal- 
lurgical discovery  of  those  early  days.  In  1552  Vasquez 
de  Mercado,  a Spaniard  of  wealth  and  family  in  Mexico, 
living  in  Guadalajara,  heard  from  the  Indians  that  a great 
mountain  of  pure  silver  existed  on  the  boundless  plateau 
far  to  the  north.  Arming  an  expedition  he  set  forth  with 
this  vain  illusion  actuating  him,  and  travelled  on  day 
after  day  expecting  that  every  sunrise  would  gleam  upon 
the  burnished  slopes  of  this  silver  mountain.  Battles 
were  fought  with  the  savage  Indians  who  inhabited  the 
plains,  but  vanquishing  these  the  deluded  party  pushed 
on.  At  last,  on  the  horizon,  the  hill  rose ; they 
approached  it : it  was  iron  ! Sleeping  sore-hearted  at  its 
1 See  my  book,  “ The  Andes  and  the  Amazon.” 


264 


MEXICO 


base  that  night,  Mercado  and  his  companions  were 
attacked  by  Indians,  various  soldiers  killed,  and  he 
himself  wounded.  Returning  homeward  towards  Guada- 
lajara, the  unfortunate  leader  succumbed  to  his  wounds, 
fatigue,  and  the  ridicule  of  his  companions,  and  he 
perished.  But  the  great  Cerro  de  Mercado,  the  hill  of 
iron,  still  remains  one  of  the  wonders  of  Mexico. 

The  long  years  of  the  struggle  for  throwing  off  the 
dominions  of  Spain  wrought  a great  change  in  Mexican 
mining,  and  even  when  independence  was  accomplished, 
the  warring  revolutionary  factions  of  a country  divided 
against  itself  destroyed  all  sense  of  security,  alienated 
the  labour,  and  so  mining  fell  into  disuse,  and  the  mines 
into  ruins.  The  history  of  the  great  Guanajuato  silver 
mines  is  typical  of  the  effect  political  conditions  exercised 
upon  this  industry.  The  great  output  of  silver  from  the 
Valenciana  mine — 300  million  dollars  during  the  last 
half  of  the  eighteenth  century — fell,  after  the  first  decade 
of  the  nineteenth,  to  insignificant  proportions.  The 
city  was  attacked  in  1810,  when  in  the  zenith  of  her 
production,  by  the  revolutionary  army  of  the  Republicans 
under  Hidalgo,  the  famous  instigator  of  independence. 
Sanguinary  struggles  took  place  in  the  city,  which  fell, 
and  with  it  the  mining  industry.  Work  was  stopped  ; the 
waters  flooded  the  shafts  and  galleries,  general  lawlessness 
took  the  place  of  order,  and  bands  of  armed  robbers 
helped  themselves  at  will  to  the  silver,  and  made  forced 
loans  upon  the  community.  Indeed,  at  the  great  mining 
centres  throughout  the  country,  Mexican  mine  buildings 
resemble  fortifications  rather  than  the  structures  of  a 
peaceable  industry ; those  which  were  constructed  during 
those  turbulent  times.  Battlemented  walls  and  loopholes 
give  some  of  these  places  the  appearance  of  the  strong- 
hold of  robber  barons  of  the  Middle  Ages,  and  remind 
the  traveller,  under  the  peaceful  regime  of  to-day,  how 
rapid  has  been  the  country’s  progress. 

The  troubled  times  of  Iturbide  followed,  and  mining 
operations  practically  ceased.  The  Indians  at  this  period 
became  unruly  in  some  districts,  due  to  the  withdrawal  of 


MINERAL  WEALTH 


265 


the  Spanish  soldiers  who  protected  the  mining  com- 
munities; and  in  Sonora,  one  of  the  busiest  of  the  mining 
states,  a great  uprising  of  the  savage  Apaches  in  1825 
caused  theabandoning  of  towns  and  industries  and  the  in- 
auguration of  a long  period  of  ruin  and  bloodshed.  In 
1824  something  of  a revival  had  begun,  by  the  operations 
of  English  capitalists  in  the  great  silver-producing  centres 
of  Real  del  Monte,  at  Pachuca,  as  already  mentioned, 
and  at  Guanajuato.  The  history  of  this  period  at  Real  del 
Monte  is  a remarkable  one,  not  yet  forgotten,  and  the 
lavish  outlay  of  funds  made  by  the  London  company  in 
Mexico  and  the  extraordinary  speculation  upon  the  shares 
in  London  are  still  pointed  to  as  an  example  of  mining 
operations  as  conducted  at  that  period.  After  spending 
twenty  million  dollars  and  extracting  sixteen  millions 
from  its  mines,  the  company  was  wound  up  in  1848.  It 
was  succeeded  by  a Mexican  company,  which  operated  to 
the  present  time,  when  sale  has  been  made  to  American 
capitalists.  The  turbulent  times  of  Maximilian  and  the 
struggles  later  for  the  Presidency  of  the  Republic  among 
its  ambitious  and  unscrupulous  military  element  in  later 
years  told  against  peaceful  industry.  Soldiers  and  bandits 
vied  with  each  other  in  extortions  and  robberies,  and  the 
fortifications  which  it  was  necessary  to  construct  around 
the  mine  buildings  attest  the  state  of  lawlessness  of  that 
period. 

Even  towards  the  close  of  last  century  life  and  property 
were  insecure,  and  men  went  armed  in  daylight  in  the 
streets  of  Pachuca  even  in  1890.  At  Guanajuato  the  Eng- 
lish company  which  had  acquired  the  great  Valenciana 
and  La  Luz  mines  worked  them  successfully  for  years,  but 
often  under  difficulties  due  to  the  raids  of  revolutionists 
— as  in  1832.  But  a disastrous  period  followed,  and 
during  the  last  decade  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  end 
came.  The  regeneration  of  these  historic  groups  of  mines 
which  is  now  taking  place  is  due  to  American  enterprise 
— the  British  regime  is  over.  The  Aztec,  the  Spaniard, 
the  Mexican,  the  Briton,  and  the  American — each  have 
had  their  day  in  taking  this  treasure  of  the  white  metal 


266 


MEXICO 


from  the  mother  lodes  of  Anahuac.  Whatever  their 
operations,  good  or  evil,  they  have  in  succession  done 
service  to  the  world — putting  into  circulation  added 
means  of  currency  and  commerce. 

The  extent  into  which  religious  matters  and  emblems 
entered  into  mining  in  these  early  days  in  the  New  World 
was  remarkable.  In  many  cases  the  entrances  to  the 
mines  were  through  elaborate  stone  doorways,  with  pillar, 
capital,  and  pediment,  carved  figures  of  saints,  and  sur- 
mounted by  a cross.  Such  are  often  encountered  in 
Mexico  and  Peru,  and  they  seem  rather  the  portals  to 
a temple  than  the  entrance  to  a mine.  There  was  some 
virtue  in  work  which  lavished  its  sentiment  and  artistic 
skill  upon  the  surroundings  of  a purely  industrial  enter- 
prise. Churches  and  chapels,  in  many  instances,  sur- 
mount the  hills  whose  bowels  are  pierced  by  shaft  and 
gallery,  and  upon  the  walls  of  these  hang  strange  pictures, 
depicting,  in  some  places,  incidents  of  mining  life  and 
accidents,  placed  there  perchance  by  some  devout  one 
who  had  escaped  from  danger.  In  some  cases  these 
churches  were  built  by  fortunate  men  who  had  become 
fabulously  rich  by  the  discovery  of  some  great  bonanza, 
and  in  token  of  their  gratitude  to  their  patron  saint  who 
had  guided  them  to  so  fortunate  a destiny  they  raised  the 
temple  which  bore  his  name. 

The  fine  cathedral  of  Chihuahua,  which  cost  more 
than  half  a million  dollars,  was  built  from  a tax 
levied  upon  every  pound  of  silver  from  the  rich  Santa 
Eulalia  mine — discovered  in  1704 — of  that  region  ; and 
in  the  State  of  Guerrero,  at  Taxco,  a splendid  church 
was  built  which  cost,  it  is  stated,  one  and  a half  million 
dollars  to  construct,  yielded  by  the  famous  mine  there. 
A huge  gallery,  or  tunnel,  which  was  begun  by  Cortes, 
forms  part  of  the  extensive  workings.  Another  example 
embodying  this  strange  medley  of  silver  and  piety  is  that 
of  the  celebrated  shrine,  or  church,  of  Guadalupe,  near 
the  capital,  whose  sacred  vessels,  altar  rails,  candelabra, 
and  other  accessories  of  a like  nature,  are  formed  of  silver 
contributed  by  the  pilgrims  who,  since  the  time  of  the 


MINERAL  WEALTH  267 

vision  which  made  the  place  famous,  journeyed  thither. 
The  weight  of  the  silver  contained  in  these  articles  is 
calculated  at  fifty  tons.  In  the  plateau-city  of  Durango 
stands  a fine  cathedral,  and  this  was  built  from  the  taxes 
imposed  upon  the  great  Avino  mine,  and  stands  as  a 
lasting  monument  to  the  great  natural  wealth  of  silver 
which  gave  it  being  and  which  for  350  years  has  enriched 
the  inhabitants  of  that  favoured  spot.  In  some  of  the 
rich  mines  it  is  recorded  that  the  miners  were  permitted 
to  carry  out  each  day  a large  piece  of  rich  ore,  which 
they  presented  as  an  offering  to  the  priest,  who  devoted 
the  total  to  the  building  of  a temple.  At  Catorce  a 
splendid  church  was  so  constructed,  at  a cost  of  nearly 
two  million  dollars. 

The  great  Valenciana  mine  at  Guanajuato,  of  which 
mention  has  been  made  as  the  scene  of  ruthless  oppres- 
sion practised  upon  the  natives  by  the  Spaniards,  which 
terminated  in  bloody  vengeance,  left  a monument  to  the 
fabulous  wealth  extracted  from  it.  This  was  built  by  a 
miner,  one  Obregon,  who,  the  chronicles  of  the  city 
state,  became  the  “ richest  man  in  the  world.”  With 
that  almost  fanatic  and  inexhaustible  credence  and  energy 
which  has  often  characterised  the  Spanish  miner,  he 
drove  his  adit  year  after  year  into  the  bowels  of  the 
great  “mother  lode”;  penniless,  ruined  at  last,  without 
credit,  and  earning  by  his  losses  and  persistence  the 
name  of  el  tonto — “ the  fool.”  But — almost  as  if  his 
patron  saint  had  resolved  to  teach  his  detractors  a 
lesson — the  reward  came.  The  richest  bonanza  that  the 
“mother  lode”  ever  yielded  he  struck.  From  the  results 
of  this  great  treasure — a mere  fraction  of  it — he  caused 
the  fine  Valenciana  church  to  be  raised,  whose  handsome 
facade  still  draws  the  traveller’s  attention  and  marks  the 
romantic  episode  of  mining  lore  which  gave  it  birth.  The 
building  of  the  temple  was  begun  in  1765;  its  cost  was  a 
million  dollars. 

Ancient  and,  in  many  cases,  ruined  churches,  especially 
in  some  of  the  northern  states,  lie  scattered  throughout 
the  regions  where  great  mining  communities  dwelt — now 


268 


MEXICO 


dead  and  gone.  But  religion — or  the  barbaric  custodian 
of  religion,  the  Inquisition — claimed  her  victims  among 
the  workers  of  mines.  At  the  beginning  of  the  seven- 
teenth century  it  was  that  a rich  mine — the  Monoloa,  in 
the  State  of  Jalisco — was  being  worked  by  one  Trevino 
and  his  partner,  who,  having  been  denounced  to  the 
Holy  Office  by  jealous  neighbours,  they  were  accused 
of  invoking  the  aid  of  the  devil  in  their  work.  The 
unfortunate  mine-owner  was  brought  to  the  capital  in 
consequence  in  1649  and  burned  alive  ! 

The  Mexican  miner,  like  his  brothers  of  Peru  or  Chile, 
not  content  with  the  churches  and  shrines  above  ground 
which  his  religion  afforded,  often  formed  chapels  and  set 
up  images  in  the  subterranean  caverns  to  whose  habita- 
tion his  daily  toil  condemned  him.  Shrines  and  crosses 
are  frequently  encountered  in  the  galleries  and  chambers 
of  Mexican  mines  now,  as  ever.  Often,  candles  are  kept 
burning  before  them  throughout  the  eternal  night,  which 
they  illuminate,  and  in  some  cases  the  devout  among  the 
miners  go  through  these  underground  labyrinths  in  their 
daily  toil  in  the  dark,  saving  their  candles  to  light  the 
shrine  ! As  they  pass  this  bright  spot  their  accustomed 
hand  comes  up  to  make  the  sign  of  the  cross,  and 
wearied  knees  humble  themselves  in  a genuflexion. 
In  one  of  the  mines  at  Guanajuato  there  is  an  elaborate 
underground  shrine  where  as  many  as  two  hundred 
candles  burn  at  times,  shedding  a radiance  which  con- 
trasts weirdly  with  the  gloomy  depths  of  worked-out 
caverns  which  surround  it. 

Such  vast  wealth  as  was  extracted  from  some  of  these 
mines  brought  not  only  material  riches,  but  royal  honours 
and  State  positions  to  their  owners.  Titles  of  nobility 
were  given  by  the  Spanish  sovereigns  to  fortunate  mine- 
owners,  some  of  whom  had  afforded  loans  or  rendered 
other  services,  and  they  received  the  high  reward  of 
being  admitted  into  the  ranks  of  the  Spanish  aristocracy. 
Thus  the  builder  of  the  great  church  of  Valenciana  at 
Guanajuato,  which  has  been  described  in  this  chapter, 
from  plain  Antonio  Obregon  became  Count  of  Valenciana. 


MINERAL  WEALTH 


269 


And,  again,  another  miner  of  that  city,  Sardafieta,  who 
drew  millions  from  the  famous  Rayas  mine,  from  the 
bonanza  which  his  persistent  adit  upon  the  “ mother 
lode  " laid  bare,  received  the  title  of  Marquis  of  Rayas. 
Still  another — marquis  and  viscount — this  wonderful  city 
and  its  silver  mountains  afforded  in  Francisco  Mathias, 
the  owner  and  worker  of  mines  upon  this  mighty  ore 
deposit.  To  some  of  these  men,  as  related,  there  have 
remained  monuments  in  the  great  churches  they  built. 
The  Marquis  of  Sardafieta  raised  up  the  massive  and 
enduring  structures  which  form  the  buildings  of  the 
Rayas  mine  at  Guanajuato,  whose  striking  architectural 
features  of  flying  buttresses,  massive  walls,  and  sculp- 
tured portals  arrest  the  traveller’s  attention.  No  sheds  of 
props  and  corrugated  roofs  are  there ; but  arches,  pillars, 
a.id  walls  of  solid  stone,  cut  and  carved,  defying  the 
centuries — and  above  their  portal  is  the  sculptured  image 
of  Michael  the  archangel. 

Pachuca,  the  wonderful  silver-producing  city  not  far 
from  the  capital  of  Mexico,  produced  a Mexican  noble. 
This  was  Pedro  Romero  de  Terreros,  who,  in  1739,  having 
discovered  a great  bonanza,  enriched  himself  by  this 
characteristic  stroke  of  fortune.  He  rendered  some  service 
to  the  King — presenting  a battleship  to  the  Imperial  Navy 
— and  was  created  a count — Conde  de  Regia. 

It  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  the  Spanish  Government 
did  not  recognise,  in  its  demands  for  bullion  from  its 
colony  of  Mexico,  any  necessity  for  scientific  advance- 
ment in  mining.  A petition  sent  to  Carlos  III.  in  1744 
by  various  prominent  persons,  and  originated  by  one  of 
the  foremost  miners  of  the  country,  secured  the  Royal 
assent  to  the  creation  of  a “ Mining  Tribunal,”  and  to- 
wards the  close  of  the  century  this  was  established,  with 
a school  where  the  sons  of  poor  miners  received  gratuitous 
education  in  mining,  without  distinction  of  caste  or 
colour.  Indeed,  the  sons  of  Indian  chiefs  of  the  Philip- 
pines were  brought  over  and  instructed  here,  and  returned 
later  to  stimulate  gold  mining  in  their  native  land.  A special 
tax  on  miners  was  then  imposed  for  the  purpose  of  raising 


270 


MEXICO 


an  adequate  building,  and  this  was  completed  in  1813, 
and  it  has  been  considered  one  of  the  best  architectural 
features  of  the  capital.  It  contained  a special  chapel, 
where  services  were  held  for  the  students  up  to  the  time 
of  the  Reform,  after  which  it  was  turned  into  a library. 

Important  as  mining  has  been  in  the  past  history  of 
Mexico,  it  is,  and  must  remain,  the  most  important  of 
the  industries  of  the  country — in  the  sense  of  wealth 
produced.  This  does  not  mean,  of  course,  that  it  is  the 
most  beneficial  to  the  interests  of  the  country  and  its  in- 
habitants at  large,  for  agriculture  is  that  by  which  the  bulk 
of  the  native  Mexicans  earn  their  means  of  subsistence. 

The  mineral-bearing  zone  of  the  country  is  a very 
extensive  one,  and  includes  all  that  portion  of  the 
Republic  traversed  by  the  Sierra  Madres  and  their  off- 
shoots. From  the  State  of  Sonora  in  the  north,  the 
boundary  with  the  United  States,  to  that  of  Chiapas  in 
the  south — bordering  upon  the  neighbouring  Republic 
of  Guatemala — minerals  are  found.  The  region  in  which 
the  most  important  mining  districts  exist,  and  in  which 
the  historic  mines  of  Mexico  lie,  forms  a great  zone  1,600 
miles  long — between  the  States  of  Sonora  in  the  north 
to  Oaxaca  in  the  south — and  250  miles  wide.  These  more 
famous  and  largely-worked  mines  are  chiefly  upon  the 
western  slope  of  the  Eastern  Sierra,  and  their  elevations 
above  sea-level  range  from  3,000  feet  to  9,000  feet,  and 
more.  The  minerals  which  are  found  throughout  this  great 
region  include  almost  all  those  known  to  commerce,  and, 
more  or  less  in  relative  order  of  their  importance,  are  as 
follows : — 

Silver,  copper,  gold,  lead,  quicksilver,  iron,  coal,  zinc, 
salt,  antimony,  petroleum,  sulphur,  tin,  bismuth,  platinum ; 
and  others  more  rarely,  as  nickel,  cobalt,  &c.  Onyx, 
marble,  opals,  emeralds,  sapphires,  topazes,  rubies,  are 
found,  and  other  precious  stones,  whilst  diamonds  are  said 
to  exist  in  certain  localities.  Agates,  cornelians,  obsidian, 
are  also  among  the  products  of  this  nature. 

The  following  table  shows  the  principal  distribution 
of  minerals  in  the  various  states  : — 


MINERAL  WEALTH 


271 


Salt. 

a a 

Bis- 

muth. 

a 

Sulphur. 

a a a a a 

Anti- 

mony. 

a a a a a 

Zinc. 

a a a 

Petro- 

leum. 

= a a 

Coal. 

a a a a a a a a a a 

Iron. 

a a a a a a a a a a a 

Mer- 

cury. 

a a a a a 

Tin.  ' 

= car  a a a 

*a 

OS 

<u 

= a = a a a a a r a a a 

Copper. 

= = r = :=  a a a a a aa  a aa  a 

Gold. 

a a a a a a aaaa  a aaaa  aaa 

Silver. 

aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa  aaaa 

<u  . a 
: s 

O </)  £2 
<u  a a 
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E .2  £ 
n !S  iS 
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O 


c 

C O 
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3 n 3 3 C 

UOQOOl£j§gZOciH  Om  c 


C«C«OSoO°ui2.lij 

i;  5^=?  « y S 2 ?!  s c 


a 

Cu 
O 3= 

y 3 


03  aj 


« ?i  c 5 cj3  E & _ „ 

.5  o « re  <u  <u  ^ 
mmEHE>N 


272 


MEXICO 


The  geological  formation  of  the  country  does  not  bear 
special  relation  to  the  deposits  of  metalliferous  minerals, 
which  are  distributed  in  many  parts  of  the  great  zone. 
In  general  terms  it  may  be  said  that  the  abundance  of 
the  ores  rather  than  their  richness  characterises  the  mines 
of  Mexico  and  is  the  source  of  their  wealth.  Those 
which  have  most  steadily  produced  bullion  generally 
consisted  of  a main  lode  containing  enormous  quantities 
of  low-grade  ore  of  about  60  ounces  per  ton ; and 
typical  of  these  are  the  mines  of  Guanajuato,  Pachuca, 
Queretaro,  Zacatecas,  and  others.  The  ores,  however, 
are  not  always  low-grade,  for  great  bonanzas  of  exceed- 
ingly rich  ore  were  encountered,  making  rapid  fortunes 
for  their  discoverers. 

Silver. — The  main  lodes  in  those  places  enumerated 
have  ranged  up  to  hundreds  of  feet  in  width,  and  form 
the  most  potent  silver-ore  deposits  upon  the  globe. 
Their  extensions  in  length  and  depth  bear  out  their 
importance  as  metal-producing  sources.  Thus  the  Mel- 
lado  vein,  of  Guanajuato,  measures,  in  places,  more  than 
300  feet  in  width  ; with  workings  ten  miles  in  length,  and 
extending  to  a present  depth  of  nearly  2,000  feet.  The 
Veta  Madre,  or  “mother  lode,”  ranges  from  30  feet  to  165 
feet  in  width  ; whilst  others  of  the  famous  lodes  reach 
50  to  100  feet.  As  to  the  ore-values,  Humboldt,  who 
visited  Guanajuato  in  the  height  of  its  production,  at 
the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century,  assigned  as  his 
calculation  a value  equal  to  about  80  ounces  of  silver  per 
ton  for  the  whole  lode.  For  portions  of  the  ore-bodies, 
and  for  many  of  the  great  bonanzas,  much  higher  values 
have  obtained,  silver  up  to  7,000  ounces  per  ton  having 
been  encountered  ; whilst  ores  of  1,100  ounces  have  been 
frequently  exported  to  Great  Britain. 

The  almost  fabulous  wealth  obtained  from  the  silver 
mines  has  been  shown  in  the  foregoing  pages,  and  these 
mines  are  far  from  being  exhausted  at  the  present  day. 
The  importance  of  the  Pachuca  mines  is  shown  by  the 
statement  that  they  produce  six  million  ounces  of  silver 
and  30,000  ounces  of  gold  yearly.  Of  the  population 


MINERAL  WEALTH 


273 


of  the  city,  of  forty  thousand  souls,  seven  thousand 
are  employed  underground. 

All  of  the  Mexican  states  are  silver  bearing,  although 
those  which  contain  the  famous  mines  are  the  most 
important,  as  : — Sonora,  Chihuahua,  Sinaloa,  Zacatecas, 
San  Luis  Potosi,  Guanajuato,  Queretaro,  Hidalgo  (Pa- 
chuca),  Mexico.  All  these  states  contain  numerous 
mining  districts — cities,  towns,  camps — which  it  would 
take  too  much  space  here  to  enumerate.  With  the 
exception  of  the  few  modern  installations  most  of  the 
mines  are  worked  by  the  primitive  Mexican  system  of 
winding  up  the  ore  in  raw-hide  sacks,  hauled  by  means 
of  cables  made  from  maguey  fibre,  upon  a mule-actuated 
windlass — the  malacate.  In  some  cases  the  miners  carry 
huge  pieces  of  ore  on  their  backs,  from  ioo  lbs.  to 
200  lbs.  in  weight,  along  the  galleries  to  the  shaft. 
Interior  transport  and  haulage  are  primitive. 

The  principal  ore  of  silver  is  the  sulphate,  although 
native  silver  is  also  freely  encountered  in  some  districts. 
The  ores  were  very  generally  decomposed  to  a depth  of 
about  300  feet.  Argentiferous  galena  is  plentiful,  and 
silver  is  freely  found  in  conjunction  with  copper  ores. 
The  caliches,  a chalk-like  substance,  easily  worked,  is 
another  rich  form  of  occurrence  of  the  metal,  and  there 
are  others  less  important.  Various  different  methods  of 
separating  silver  from  its  ores  are  used  ; the  prevailing 
ones  being  those  of  smelting,  lixiviation,  and  the  patio 
process,  which  last  has  accounted  for  90  per  cent,  of 
the  production.  Indeed,  the  recovery  of  silver  by  the 
patio  process  has  always  been  one  of  the  most  important 
industries  of  Spanish-American  countries,  especially  in 
Mexico,  Peru,  and  Chile.  In  Mexico  it  has  been  employed 
continuously  since  the  year  1557,  when  it  was  invented  by 
Medina  at  the  hacienda  Purisima  Grande.  This  was  the 
first  application  of  amalgamation  to  silver  ores,  and  per- 
mitted the  treatment  of  the  vast  quantities  of  low-grade 
ores,  which  did  not  pay  to  smelt.  To-day  great  quantities 
of  ore  are  still  treated  by  this  method.  The  process  is  too 
well  known  to  require  much  description  here.  Its  main 

19 


274 


MEXICO 


points  of  advantage  are  the  simplicity — in  practice,  for  its 
chemistry  is  complicated  in  theory — of  its  methods  and 
appliances.  The  principal  agents  employed  may  be  said 
to  be  mercury  and  horseflesh,  or  rather  mule-flesh  ; the 
mercury  forming  an  amalgam  with  the  precious  metals 
under  the  incorporation  brought  about  by  the  trampling 
hoofs  of  the  mules.  The  trampling  and  incorporation  of 
the  torta,  or  charge  of  pounded  ore,  mercury,  water,  salt, 
copper  sulphate,  and  other  constituents,  mixed  into  a 
paste,  was  originally  performed  by  barefooted  natives, 
but  the  practice  of  using  mules  for  the  purpose  came 
from  Peru,  in  1783,  as  before  mentioned.  The  patio,  as 
its  name  implies,  consists  of  a paved  yard  upon  which  the 
crushed  mineral  is  treated.  This  is  in  some  cases  of  very 
large  capacity,  one  of  the  most  important  in  the  country, 
that  of  the  Guadalupe  works  at  Pachuca,  which  treats 
nearly  a thousand  tons  of  ore  a week,  being  as  large  as 
the  plaza  of  a city.  Upon  this  the  torta  is  spread,  and 
bands  of  a dozen  mules,  or  mules  and  horses,  harnessed 
together,  are  driven  up  and  down  from  morning  till  after- 
noon, through  the  slushy  mass.  The  animals  are  then 
bathed  to  remove  the  chemicals,  but  notwithstanding  this 
the  work  is  deleterious,  and  they  last  but  a few  years — the 
old  ones  but  a few  months — as  they  become  poisoned  by 
the  copper  sulphate.  At  some  of  the  haciendos  of  Pachuca 
six  hundred  horses  are  employed  in  this  work,  and  the 
total  throughout  the  country  is  considerable.  Constant 
efforts  have  been  made  for  the  use  of  mechanical  appli- 
ances, to  take  the  place  of  the  equine  mixer,  but  these 
have  not  been  found  to  give  the  same  efficiency.  The 
process  is  typical  of  the  country  and  the  race — time, 
space,  and  material  are  plentiful,  and  labour  is  cheap, 
and  horses — well,  they  were  made  for  man’s  use  ! The 
innate  tendency  of  the  Spanish-Americans  to  do  without 
mechanical  appliances  also  is  indulged. 

The  growth  of  the  silver-producing  industry  of  recent 
years  is  shown  by  the  returns,  giving  approximately  a 
value  of  seven  million  Mexican  dollars  for  1890  and  fifty 
million  for  1902,  for  export  alone.  The  total  value  of 


MINERAL  WEALTH 


275 


the  silver  production  for  1907  was  eight  million  sterling, 
which  was  more  than  that  of  the  United  States,  and  so 
Mexico  led  the  world  in  that  year. 

Gold. — The  gold  which  was  formerly  produced  in 
Mexico  has  come  principally  from  the  silver  ores,  with 
which  it  is  generally  associated,  and  has  been  obtained 
from  the  amalgamation  of  these.  More  recently  gold- 
bearing  quartz  lodes  are  being  worked,  and  are  pro- 
ducing important  quantities  of  gold.  Among  the 
foremost  of  these  are  the  mines  of  the  district  of 
El  Oro,  in  the  State  of  Mexico,  somewhat  less  than  a 
hundred  miles  to  the  north-west  of  the  capital.  They 
produced  in  1905  about  ten  million  dollars  in  gold,  or 
about  800,000  dollars  per  month.  Whilst  Mexico  has 
not  generally  been  looked  upon  as  a gold-producing 
country,  it  is  undoubtedly  the  case  that  it  will,  under 
the  present  rate  of  development,  rank  among  the  fore- 
most of  these.  At  present  Mexico  holds  sixth  place 
with  a production  for  1907  of  3§  millions  sterling.  Gold- 
bearing  lodes  are  being  discovered  and  worked  in  most 
of  the  States,  and  thousands  of  such  deposits  are  being 
prospected,  or  awaiting  such,  whilst  numerous  crushing 
plants  are  treating  ores  in  those  districts  most  accessible 
to  the  railways.  The  enterprise  known  as  El  Oro 
Mining  and  Railway  Company  may  be  looked  upon 
as  a well-managed  and  prosperous  concern,  controlled 
by  British  capital.  It  was  first  acquired  by  a British 
company  in  1815,  and  it  is  stated  that  it  yielded  five 
or  six  million  pounds  sterling  of  gold.  Later  it  was 
abandoned,  taken  up  in  1870  by  native  capitalists,  and 
at  the  end  of  last  century  purchased  by  an  American 
company,  to  be  again  acquired  by  British  interests  in 
1899.  The  enterprise  controls  a large  area  of  ground 
of  more  than  500  acres,  a short  railway  to  the  Mexican 
National  Line,  and  some  valuable  forests  which  afford 
fuel.  With  its  battery  of  200  stamps  and  large  cyaniding 
mills,  it  has  a capacity  for  ore  treatment  of  20,000  tons 
per  month.  The  yield  per  ton  of  ore  is  given  for  1900 
at  slightly  under  £3  per  ton,  at  a cost  of  about  25s.,  and 


276 


MEXICO 


for  1907  35s.  per  ton,  at  a cost  of  slightly  under  20s.  The 
tonnage  treated  for  these  years  were  53,500  tons  and 
263,000  tons  respectively,  and  all  the  intervening  years 
show  the  steady  increase.  The  output  for  1907  was 
more  than  a million  tons  of  ore,  due  to  the  added 
capacity  of  the  new  stamp  mill,  whilst  the  monthly 
profits  for  that  year  and  for  1908  fluctuated  between 
.£14,000  and  ;£  18,000. 

Other  successful  enterprises  of  El  Oro  region  are  the 
Somera  Gold  Mining  Company,  affiliated  with  the  fore- 
going, and  the  Mexico  Mines  of  El  Oro.  The  latter 
company's  mill  has  a capacity  of  250  tons  of  ore  daily, 
and  the  recent  monthly  profits  have  been,  it  is  stated, 
upwards  of  .£15,000.  These  are  also  controlled  by 
British  capitalists,  as  is  the  “Esperanza”  Mine  of  El 
Oro,  it  is  stated,  which  has  produced  since  1895  a 
value  of  4^  millions  sterling,  with  a profit  of  nearly 
2\  millions.  The  “ Dos  Estrellas”  Mine  is  yet  another 
example  of  this  successful  district.  It  is  said  to  have 
made  profits  since  1902  of  2\  millions  sterling,  and  to 
have  ore  for  future  work  in  large  quantities.  It  is 
interesting  to  note  that  this  excellent  performance  has 
been  made  on  ground  which  had  been  condemned  by 
mining  experts  ! 1 

Other  prosperous  mining  concerns  in  different  parts  of 
the  country,  generally  owned  by  native  capital,  include 
the  “Real  del  Monte”  Mines  of  Pachuca,  elsewhere 
described  : the  “ Maravellas  and  Anexas  Mining  Com- 
pany,” principally  silver  producing ; the  “ Santa  Ger- 
trude Mines,”  a silver  property ; “ La  Blanca  and 
Anexas,”  gold  and  silver — all  of  which  are  in  the 
Pachuca  district.  The  Parral  mining  district,  in 
Chihuahua,  is  one  which  has  recently  received  atten- 
tion, although  it  is  not  new,  having  yielded  silver  from 
the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century.  Some  six  millions 
sterling  represent  the  investments  in  the  district  during 
the  last  fifteen  years  in  these  mines.  The  famous 
Penoles  Mine  is  among  the  most  prosperous  in  the 
1 These  figures  are  from  the  Mexican  Year  Book,  1908. 


MINERAL  WEALTH 


277 


country.  This  is  a lead-gold-silver-producing  enter- 
prise in  Durango,  at  Mapimi,  worked  first  in  Colonial 
times.  Now  it  owns  large  smelters,  a line  of  railway, 
and  an  extensive  property.  In  1907  this  enterprise 
produced  58,000  kilograms  of  silver,  504  kilograms  of 
gold,  and  has  an  annual  output  of  some  20,000  tons 
of  lead. 

In  Sonora  various  gold-mining  properties  are  at  work. 
Among  them  is  the  Consolidated  Goldfields  of  Mexico, 
Ltd.,  British  capital : the  Creston-Colorado  Mines,  worked 
by  American  capital,  including  the  old  British-worked 
Minas  Prietas  mines  : the  Great  Central  Mining  Com- 
pany, an  important  British  enterprise,  with  a large 
cyaniding  plant : the  Bufa  and  the  Trinidad  Com- 
panies, producing  gold,  silver,  and  copper.  In  fact, 
the  State  of  Sonora  is  a rich  field  for  the  working  of 
the  precious  metals,  and  offers  great  possibilities. 

In  Chihuahua  are  some  important  gold  and  silver- 
producing  enterprises,  among  them  the  Greene  Gold- 
Silver  Company,  owned  by  Americans,  and  the  Pal- 
marejo  Mines,  a British  enterprise.  Indeed,  with  its 
numerous  important  mining  centres,  this  State  is  held 
to  be  the  foremost  in  Mexico,  and  a large  output  of  the 
precious  metals  is  being  made. 

Lower  California  contains  a great  deal  of  resource  in 
gold-quartz  lodes,  and  some  important  placer  deposits. 
This  territory  is  one  of  the  richest  mineral  regions  of 
North  America. 

The  principal  gold-producing  States  are  Chihuahua, 
Sonora,  Zacatecas,  Guerrero,  Oaxaca,  Mexico,  Lower 
California,  Hidalgo,  Chiapas,  Coahuila.  No  less  than 
eighteen  of  the  States  of  Mexico  contain  gold-bearing 
districts. 

Hydraulic,  or  placer,  mining  for  gold  has  not  been 
much  considered  as  a source  of  supply,  as  there  are 
no  great  alluvial  deposits,  so  far  known,  such  as  exist 
in  other  parts  of  North  and  South  America.  Never- 
theless, something  has  been  done  in  this  way,  princi- 

ally  in  the  States  of  Chihuahua  and  Guerrero.  The 


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geological  formation,  however,  does  not  point  the  pro- 
bability of  the  existence  of  great  alluvial  deposits,  and 
the  placers  take  the  form  of  river  bars  principally. 

The  rise  of  Mexico’s  gold-production  has  been  rapid. 
The  country  now  holds  sixth  place.  In  1893  its 
value  was  less  than  4 per  cent,  of  that  of  the  silver 
output,  whilst  in  1894  it  jumped  to  14  per  cent.,  and 
in  1902,  20  per  cent.  The  export  of  gold  bullion  in 
1890  was  only  half  a million  Mexican  dollars,  whilst 
in  1903  it  had  risen  to  ii£  millions.  The  value  of 
the  total  gold  production  for  1907  was  3f  millions 
sterling. 

Among  other  producing  mines  is  the  Providencia, 
of  Guanajuato,  yielding  gold,  silver,  and  iron.  Yet 
another  is  the  “ San  Rafael  and  Anexas,”  a regular 
dividend-payer,  whose  net  profits  for  1907  are  given 
as  three-quarters  of  a million  dollars.  The  famous 
region  of  Tlalpujahua  is  once  more  receiving  attention. 

Copper. — The  rise  of  Mexico  as  a copper-producing 
country  has  been  remarkable.  Less  than  fifteen  years 
ago  the  Republic  was  unheard  of  as  a source  of  the 
red  metal,  now  it  ranks  second  in  the  world’s  output, 
coming  next  to  the  United  States  with  a production 
for  the  year  1907  of  56,600  tons.  The  following  States 
are  those  which  are  most  important  as  copper-bear- 
ing : Chihuahua,  Sonora,  Coahuila,  Zacatecas,  Jalisco, 
Michoacan,  Puebla,  Queretaro,  Tamaulipas,  Lower  Cali- 
fornia, and  Colima. 

In  Sonora  the  following  mines  are  at  work  : The 
Bufa  Mining  and  Smelting  Company ; the  Trinidad 
Mining  Company,  upon  which  large  sums  of  money 
have  been  spent ; the  Montezuma  Mine,  an  important 
enterprise,  formed  with  an  outlay  of  millions  of  dollars 
upon  its  appliances  and  workings,  and  having  a daily 
capacity  of  250  tons  of  ore,  belonging  to  American 
capitalists.  The  Cananea  Consolidated  Copper  Company, 
a remarkable  enterprise  instituted  by  American  capitalists. 
Cananea  is  considered  to  be  one  of  the  most  important 
copper  regions  in  the  world,  and  a considerable  pre- 


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279 


liminary  outlay  made  has  been  justified  in  the  results ; 
the  works  exporting  several  thousand  tons  of  copper 
monthly.  It  forms  one  of  the  most  complete 
installations  of  its  nature.  The  Yaqui  River  Smelting 
and  Railway  Company  is  a custom  smelter,  and  affords 
a market  for  much  local  copper  ore.  There  are  other 
copper-producing  enterprises  under  development,  and 
the  State  of  Sonora  is  thus  a most  productive  source 
of  the  red  metal. 

In  Chihuahua  active  development  upon  copper  mines 
is  being  carried  on,  and  the  production  stimulated  by 
the  establishing  of  smelting  works.  There  is  also  an 
important  copper  foundry  at  Monterrey,  in  the  State 
of  Nuevo  Leon. 

In  Lower  California  are  the  large  copper  mines 
and  smelting  works  of  Boleo,  owned  by  a French  com- 
pany. This  is  an  important  enterprise,  supporting  a 
population  of  8,000  souls,  and  its  eight  smelters  are 
of  a capacity  of  150  tons  daily,  giving  an  output  of 
copper  of  11,500  tons  per  annum.  With  its  own  rail- 
ways, harbour,  and  town,  the  enterprise  is  a self-centred 
community  of  much  prosperity. 

The  State  of  Guerrero  affords  some  copper  ore  deposits 
probably  of  great  extent,  and  among  these  are  several 
mines  which  are  being  developed. 

In  the  State  of  Zacatecas  is  the  important  British 
enterprise  of  the  Mazapil  Copper  Company,  with  an 
extensive  property,  smelting  furnaces,  and  railway  line, 
with  also  a long  overhead  cable  system  of  ore-carriage. 

Iron. — Deposits  of  iron  ores  are  found  in  several  of 
the  states.  In  Durango  is  the  much  described  Cerro  de 
Mercado , a hill  of  iron  ore  calculated  as  containing 
460,000,000  tons  of  iron  ore,  assaying  70  to  75  per  cent, 
pure  iron.  This  remarkable  hill  was  discovered  in  1552. 

The  city  of  Monterrey,  in  the  State  of  Nuevo  Leon, 
contains  a large  ironfoundry  and  steel-producing  plant, 
and  two  iron  and  brassfoundries,  establishments  which 
are  of  much  importance  to  the  country.  Guerrero  has 
valuable  deposits  of  iron  ore  near  Chilpancingo. 


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MEXICO 


Quicksilver. — In  the  State  of  Guerrero  are  the  quick- 
silver mines  of  Ahuitzuco,  which  have  produced  quan- 
tities of  mercury.  Durango  has  deposits  of  cinnabar 
at  Nazas  and  El  Oro. 

Coal. — In  the  State  of  Sonora  are  extensive  fields  of 
anthracite,  with  seams  in  some  cases  14  feet  in  thick- 
ness, and  these  are  being  developed  by  an  American 
company.  Near  these  are  others,  equally  important, 
and  the  whole  area  is  very  considerable.  Coahuila 
contains  perhaps  the  most  important  coal-beds  in  the 
Republic,  and  a considerable  output  of  coal  and  coke 
is  being  made.  Other  states  contain  coal-fields. 

Petroleum. — In  the  State  of  Tamaulipas  are  the  petro- 
leum deposits  of  “ El  Ebano,”  worked  by  an  American 
company.  In  July,  1908,  an  enormous  “fresher"  was 
struck  at  San  Geronimo,  near  Tampico,  and  this  became 
ignited  and  burned  fiercely  for  two  months,  with  a pillar 
of  flame  1,000  feet  high,  which  was  visible  for  100  miles. 
So  rapid  was  the  flow  of  oil  when  this  was  extin- 
guished that  earthen  dams  were  hastily  constructed  to 
save  the  oil.  Several  other  states  have  oil  deposits. 

Salt. — In  Tamaulipas,  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  the  salt 
mines  of  Matamoros  and  Soto  la  Marina  produce  quan- 
tities of  salt.  On  the  Pacific  side  of  the  country,  Carmen 
Island,  off  the  Gulf  coast  of  Baja,  California,  exists  one 
of  the  largest  salt-beds  in  the  world. 

Lead  is  distributed  through  numerous  states.  It  occurs 
largely  as  high-grade  argentiferous  galena.  The  output 
for  1907  was  73,000  tons. 

Antimony. — The  value  of  the  production  of  this  for 
1907  was  about  -£140,000. 

Tin  has  not  been  worked  commercially,  although  great 
deposits  of  the  ores  of  this  metal  are  shown  to  exist, 
especially  in  the  State  of  Durango,  where  there  are 
several  districts,  Guanajuato  and  Aguascalientes.  It  was 
one  of  the  metals  used  by  the  Aztecs. 

The  value  of  the  total  mineral  production  of  the 
Republic,  in  round  numbers,  as  shown  by  the  fiscal 
returns,  including  the  product  of  reduction  works  and 


MINERAL  WEALTH 


281 


the  exports  of  metals,  ores,  and  bullion,  is  taken  at 
.£15,000,000 — an  excellent  showing. 

The  number  of  mining  properties  held  under  title  for 
1907  are  : — gold  and  silver,  14,950  ; gold  and  silver  with 
other  metals,  9,050  ; other  metals  and  mineral  substances, 
2,35°,  or  a total  of  26,350,  equal  to  an  area  of  873,000 
acres.  The  method  of  acquiring  mining  property  in 
Mexico  is  relatively  simple.  As  to  ownership,  the  only 
cause  of  forfeiture  is  default  in  payment  of  the  taxes 
upon  the  title-deeds. 

In  Mexico  the  foreign  capitalist  and  miner  will  find 
endless  scope  for  his  money  and  energies.  Yet  it  is  a 
feature  of  the  industry,  and  of  the  excellent  conditions 
obtaining  in  the  financial  world  of  the  Republic,  that 
good  mines  are  easily  financed  within  the  country  itself. 
Details  of  the  cofiditions  of  the  mining  regions  are  further 
set  forth  in  the  chapter  devoted  to  the  natural  resources 
of  the  various  states. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

NATURAL  RESOURCES,  AGRICULTURE,  GENERAL  CONDITIONS 


Principal  cultivated  products — Timber — The  three  climatic  zones — General 
agricultural  conditions — Waste  of  forests — Irrigation — Region  of  the 
river  Nazas — Canal-making — Cotton  and  sugar-cane — Profitable 
agriculture — Mexican  country-houses — Fruit  gardens — Food  products, 
cereals,  and  fibrous  plants — Pulque  production — India-rubber  and 
guayulc — List  of  agricultural  products  and  values — Fruit  culture  and 
values — Forestry  and  land — Colonisation — American  land-sharks — 
Conditions  of  labour — Asiatics — Geographical  distribution  of  products 
— The  States  of  the  Pacific  slope — Sonora — Lower  California — 
Sinaloa — Tepic — Jalisco — Colima — Michoacan  — Guerrero — Oaxaca — 
Chiapas. 


With  its  remarkable  variations  of  climatic  zones  and 
great  wealth  and  variety  of  vegetation,  it  might  have 
been  supposed  that  agriculture,  not  mining,  would  have 
been  the  great  mainstay  of  Mexico.  But  the  fame  of 
silver  has  overshadowed  that  of  corn,  wine,  and  oil,  to 
the  country's  detriment,  in  a certain  sense.  Agriculture 
must  be  the  foundation  of  greatness,  in  the  long  run,  of 
any  country,  especially  of  those  which  are  not  manufac- 
turing communities — or  even  of  those  as  time  goes  on, 
and  Mexico  is  beginning  to  recognise  this  fact.  The 
mines  are  valuable  sources  of  wealth,  but  there  will 
come  a day  when  the  mines  are  worked  out,  leaving 
gaping  holes  in  the  ground,  and  the  silver  and  gold,  or 
copper  they  contained,  dispersed  or  enriching  the  private 
pockets  of  aliens.  It  has  been  well  said  that  if  the  capital 
expended  on  mining  in  Mexico  had  been  applied  to  the 

cultivation  of  the  soil,  the  country  would  have  been  four 

282 


NATURAL  RESOURCES 


283 


times  as  rich  as  at  present.  Fortunately  those  who  come 
to  mine  often  remain  to  till  the  ground,  as  happened  in 
California  and  elsewhere.  I had  almost  said  “ fools  who 
came  to  scoff  remained  to  pray  ! ” 

In  former  chapters  the  differences  of  the  climatic 
zones  have  been  set  forth  ; the  hot  lowlands,  the  tem- 
perate zone,  and  the  cold  regions  respectively,  with  their 
elevation  limits  above  sea-level.  These  may  be  further 
described  by  their  main  agricultural  products  as — the 
sugar-  and  rubber-bearing  zone,  the  coffee-bearing  zone, 
and  the  cereal-producing  zone,  the  last  being  the  great 
plateau. 

It  is  to  be  recollected  that,  rich  and  varied  as  Mexico's 
vegetable  products  are,  some  of  the  most  useful  to  man- 
kind were  not  indigenous,  but  were  introduced  by  Euro- 
peans. Among  these  are  sugar-cane,  oranges,  the  cereals, 
as  wheat,  &c.  (except  maize),  olives,  the  grape-vine,  and 
coffee. 

Cotton,  of  course,  was  native,  and  if  Europe  gave 
Mexico  great  benefits  of  staple  plants,  Mexico  also  gave 
of  hers  to  Europe,  as  the  chocolatl — our  well-known 
chocolate — the  banana,  and  other  fruits. 

Beginning  with  the  tropical  region,  the  main  natural 
and  cultivated  products  are  : sugar-cane,  rubber,  coffee, 
oranges,  bananas,  limes,  cacao  or  chocolate,  tobacco, 
pepper,  vanilla,  henequen  or  hemp,  rice,  cocoanuts,  ahua- 
cates  or  “ alligator-pears,"  yucca,  indigo,  maize,  alfalfa. 

Mahogany  and  other  cabinet  woods,  and  timber  for 
constructional  purposes,  abound  in  the  various  zones, 
and  some  seventy-five  kinds  are  enumerated,  as  shown 
on  another  page.  The  enormous  lepehuajes,  or  cypresses, 
are  famous — one  near  Oaxaca  has  a trunk  of  a diameter 
of  50  feet,  6 feet  from  the  ground. 

The  temperate  zone,  into  which  the  former  merges 
insensibly,  is  less  fertile,  less  well-watered,  but  much 
healthier,  and  produces  matters  of  equal  value  to  the 
foregoing,  among  them  the  grape-vine,  maize,  coffee,  and 
various  of  those  above  enumerated. 

Timber  for  constructional  purposes  is  found  freely  in 


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MEXICO 


this  zone,  reaching  far  up  to  the  higher  region  of  the 
cold  lands.  Ranging  from  8,000  to  14,000  feet  above 
sea-level,  the  coniferous  forests  are  one  of  the  most 
characteristic  features  of  Mexico. 

This  third  climatic  zone,  embracing  parts  of  the  table- 
land, is  capable  of  producing  all  the  varieties  of  wheat, 
and  does  actually  produce  some,  and  the  cultivation  of 
this  cereal  is  being  extended.  The  maguey,  or  agave, 
is  a staple  product,  yielding  the  famous  pulque  beverage, 
and  indeed  the  lands  which  produce  this  intoxicant  might 
well  be,  in  the  national  interests,  applied  to  the  growing 
of  wheat.  The  growing  of  the  grape-vine,  potatoes, 
beans,  and  other  valuable  products  and  sources  of 
industry  upon  the  plateau.  Cotton  leads  in  importance. 

As  regards  the  natural  conditions  of  vegetation 
throughout  the  country,  it  is  estimated  that  there  exist 
some  5,700  square  miles  of  dense  forest,  250,000  square 
miles  of  well-timbered  land,  and  about  500,000  square 
miles  of  uncultivated  land.  Mexican  authorities  state 
that  “ the  regions  of  Oaxaca  and  Chiapas  have  no  rival, 
not  even  Brazil,  in  the  possibilities  of  production  of 
excellent  grades  of  coffee,  in  unlimited  quantities  ; that 
the  plateau  can  produce  unlimited  quantities  of  wheat, 
even  to  supply  foreign  markets;  that  Vera  Cruz,  Tabasco, 
and  Tepic  are  capable  of  replacing  Cuba  in  the  quality 
and  quantity  of  its  tobacco;  and  that  the  northern  states 
could  supply  food  for  millions  of  cattle."  Yet,  notwith- 
standing these  conditions,  the  export  trade  of  produce  is 
almost  nil,  nor  are  the  general  methods  of  agriculture 
but  backward  as  a rule.  There  are  several  causes  for 
this — the  lack  of  roads  and  railways,  the  lack  of  labour, 
and  the  general  ignorance  of  the  farming  population. 
All  these  reasons  are  officially  adduced,  and  strong 
efforts  are  constantly  made  by  the  Government  to 
encourage  agricultural  development.  Trustworthy  in- 
formation is  supplied  to  the  farmers,  and  seeds  and 
cuttings  of  imported  plants — olives,  vines,  fruit-trees, 
flax,  tobacco,  &c. — are  gratuitously  distributed. 

The  indiscriminate  and  wasteful  felling  of  forests  is 


NATURAL  RESOURCES 


285 


now  being  restricted  by  the  authorities  to  some  extent. 
Great  areas  have  already  been  denuded,  and  it  is  stated 
that  this  has  had  some  undesirable  effect  on  the  rainfall 
in  certain  regions.  The  natives  of  the  more  remote 
districts — as  in  the  States  of  Vera  Cruz,  Guerrero,  &c., 
are  abominably  wasteful  in  timber-cutting,  sacrificing 
whole  trees  for  the  obtaining  of  a single  plank  at  times. 
There  is  a nomadic  race  of  Indian  agriculturists  in 
Guerrero  who  destroy  large  areas  of  forest  every  year, 
burning  the  trees  to  plant  corn  upon  spaces  which 
they  never  use  for  two  years  in  succession.  These 
nomadic  timber-destroyers  are  known  as  Tlacoleros,  and 
they  are  extremely  timid  and  superstitious  in  their 
dealings  with  the  white  men. 

Mexico,  like  other  Western  American  states,  is  a 
country  whose  agriculture  depends  much  upon  artificial 
irrigation.  Whilst  much  good  work  has  been  carried 
out  in  this  field,  much  remains  to  be  done  ; and  the 
want  of  irrigation  works  is  almost  as  serious  a drawback 
as  the  want  of  labour.  The  singular  topographical 
formation  of  Mexico  has  robbed  it  of  natural  irrigation 
facilities — steep  slopes  facing  the  oceans  and  a high  river- 
less plateau  war  against  the  retention  and  absorption  of 
the  rain-waters,  and  the  run-off  is  consequently  exces- 
sively rapid.  Nevertheless  proper  storage  of  water  in 
reservoirs  during  times  of  heavy  rain,  especially  upon 
the  great  plateau,  could  accomplish  much,  and  such 
enterprises  should  be  exceedingly  profitable,  for,  in 
certain  regions,  water  is  almost  “ worth  its  weight  in 
silver.”  In  another  place  I have  made  mention  of  the 
irrigation  system  of  the  River  Nazas,  which  may  be 
compared  to  the  Nile  on  a small  scale.  The  waters  of 
this  river,  in  times  of  normal  flow,  are  entirely  exhausted 
by  the  numerous  irrigation  canals  which  lead  therefrom, 
traversing  the  plains  for  many  miles,  and  conducting 
water  to  the  large  cotton  plantations  for  which  the  region 
is  famous.  This  region  is  known  as  “ La  Laguna,”  and 
its  great  area  and  depth  of  fertile  soil  are  the  result  of  an 
ancient  lake-basin.  So  valuable  is  the  water  here  that 


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MEXICO 


not  many  years  ago  feuds  were  common  between  the 
large  cotton-growers  of  the  district,  who  continually 
strove  to  deprive  each  other  of  the  water  in  order  to 
benefit  themselves.  Blowing-up  of  diverting  dams  and 
weirs  with  dynamite  even  took  place,  and  things  reached 
such  a pitch  that  the  Government  were  obliged  to  step 
in  and  establish  a controlling  “River  Nazas  Commission,” 
under  whose  administration  a proper  regimen  of  the 
waters  and  irrigation  system  was  enforced.  Among  the 
great  estates  of  this  region  may  be  mentioned  that  of 
Tlahualilo,  with  which  British  enterprise  is  connected. 
The  canal  belonging  to  this  company  is  some  fifty  miles 
long,  and  has  a large  flowing  capacity,  and  there  are 
numerous  others  of  less  volume.  I spent  some  time  in 
this  interesting  region,  and  so  became  acquainted  with 
its  peculiar  conditions.  The  Nazas  rises  in  the  moun- 
tains, and  has  no  outlet  to  the  sea,  as  elsewhere  de- 
scribed ; and,  dry  in  the  dry  season,  its  bed  becomes  a 
raging  flood  in  the  wet,  a spate  or  wave  of  water  filling 
it  up  from  bank  to  bank,  300  feet  wide,  in  half  an 
hour.  This  great  flood  principally  runs  to  waste  in  the 
Parras  lagoon,  and  were  its  waters  diverted  and  stored  at 
higher  elevations  they  would  be  of  incalculable  value  in 
the  increase  of  the  available  cotton-growing  area.  A 
project  is  on  foot  at  present  for  a work  of  this  nature,  a 
barrage  on  the  Nazas. 

The  name  Tlahualilo,  a liquid-flowing  aboriginal  desig- 
nation, means  “ The  Devil  ” ! The  river  gives  life  to 
dozens  of  large  cotton-growing  haciendas,  whose  owners 
have  become  millionaires,  as  a rule,  thanks  to  this  minia- 
ture Nile  of  the  Nazas.  In  this  region  scientific  canal 
construction  has,  of  late  years,  been  well  carried  out, 
but  formerly  methods  were  very  primitive.  On  one 
occasion  I was  riding  with  a hacendado  friend  over  his 
estate,  when  we  crossed  the  bed  of  a canal — dry  and 
unused — which  wound  over  the  plain.  “ What  is  this  ?” 
I asked.  In  reply  he  informed  me  that  it  had  been 
designed  to  irrigate  a large  tract  of  land,  but  the  levels 
were  wrong.  In  earlier  times  there  were  no  engineers 


NATURAL  RESOURCES 


287 


in  the  region,  and  irrigation  canals  were  made  by  the 
primitive  method  of  continually  pouring  water  on  the 
ground,  or  opening  a little  furrow  and  letting  it  run,  and 
then  following  its  course  with  the  construction  of  the 
canal  ! This  had  been  done,  but  for  some  reason  an 
error  had  been  made  at  the  starting-point,  and  the  whole 
work  rendered  useless.  In  justice  to  this  primitive 
method  of  canal-levelling  it  must  be  stated  that  success- 
ful aqueducts  were  generally  made,  although  naturally 
their  course  was  often  exceedingly  tortuous  and  much 
longer  than  would  have  been  indicated  by  the  theodolite 
and  level  of  the  engineer. 

In  the  tropical  parts  of  Mexico  water  is  also  of  great 
value  at  times  for  the  irrigation  of  sugar-cane,  as  impor- 
tant an  industry  as  cotton,  and  long  lines  of  canal  are 
constructed  for  this  purpose,  but  under  greater  diffi- 
culties, due  to  the  broken  nature  of  the  ground.  Condi- 
tions of  this  nature  are  found  in  the  State  of  Morelos, 
on  the  Pacific  slope,  where  I stayed  for  a period,  and 
great  tracts  of  rich  soil  are  irrigated  for  cane,  and  are 
exceedingly  profitable.  In  the  future  a vigorous  and 
scientific  development  of  irrigation  will  greatly  increase 
the  agricultural  wealth  of  the  country  in  all  its  sections. 
Agriculture  on  a large  scale  is  very  profitable,  and  the 
owners  of  haciendas  are  generally  men  of  wealth  and 
position. 

A Mexican  country  house,  or  hacienda,  is  often  a 
picturesque  and  interesting  habitation.  It  is  not,  how- 
ever— like  such  residences  in  England — only  a dwelling- 
place  and  home,  but  is  at  the  same  time  a centre  of 
industry.  Surrounding  it  are  great  plantations  of  sugar- 
cane, cotton,  maguey,  or  other  agricultural  products 
which  the  particular  region  may  afford,  and  the  great 
outbuildings  comprise  the  warehouses,  machinery  sheds, 
and  indeed  the  whole  plant  for  the  treatment  of  the 
product,  whilst,  near  at  hand,  are  the  numerous  huts  of 
the  peones,  or  agricultural  labourers,  to  whose  work  the 
cultivation  of  the  estate  is  due.  The  house  itself  is  often 
of  quaint  aspect,  and  of  some  architectural  pretension  ; 


288 


MEXICO 


Moorish-looking  arches  and  cornices,  and  turrets  and 
columns,  balconies  and  verandas,  generally  of  solid 
masonry  in  the  wealthy  haciendas , are  set  there  to  defy 
all  time.  Indeed,  many  of  these  have  already  resisted 
the  ravages  of  centuries,  and  the  great  thickness  of  the 
walls  arrests  the  traveller’s  attention.  The  roofs — flat  in 
some  cases — are  generally  covered  with  red  pan-tiles  dug 
and  baked  near  at  hand.  Perhaps  a small  chapel 
adjoins  ; aqueducts  and  stone  channels  convey  a spark- 
ling stream  of  water  from  the  canal  communicating  with 
the  distant  river,  and  a profuse  garden  surrounds  the 
whole. 

In  this  great  garden  are  all  Mexico’s  tropical  fruits — 
pomegranates,  oranges,  limes,  chirimoyas,  ahuacates,  figs, 
grapes,  and  a host  of  others,  and  you  may  wander 
beneath  their  grateful  shade  and  take  your  fill.  Above 
them,  perhaps  the  tall,  slender  columns,  and  graceful, 
feathery  foliage  of  the  cocoanut  palms  rear.  And  over 
all  is  the  blue  dome  of  the  Mexican  sky.  It  is  a peaceful 
scene,  not  without  something  of  allurement. 

The  interior  menage  is  more  primitive  than  that  of 
European  houses,  and  often  presents  a singular  whole  in 
its  abundance  and  crudeness  combined.  But  hospitality 
ever  reigns  there,  and  the  foreigner  is  always  welcome. 
The  production  at  present  of  Mexico's  staple  articles  of 
agricultural  nature  is  as  follows  : — 

Cotton. — Before  the  time  of  the  Aztecs  cotton  was  culti- 
vated in  Mexico,  and  cotton-spinning  carried  out.  The 
quilted  cotton  armour  of  the  natives  excited  the  attention 
of  the  Conquistadores,  and  they  even  adopted  it  them- 
selves. Mexico  has  lands  of  cotton-producing  adapt- 
ability, it  is  stated,  greater  than  the  United  States  ; 
nevertheless  she  imports  cotton  therefrom  in  consider- 
able quantities.  The  consumption  of  raw  cotton  in  the 
country  is  estimated  at  more  than  100,000  bales  annually, 
of  which  half  is  produced  in  the  country,  principally 
upon  the  Nazas,  the  yearly  value  of  whose  crop  amounts 
to  some  two  millions  sterling.  Other  states,  however,  also 
produce  cotton,  or  are  capable  of  large  production. 


NATURAL  RESOURCES 


289 


The  total  value  for  the  recent  annual  production  is  given 
at  about  .£3,400,000. 

Sugar. — The  sugar-cane  was  introduced  by  the 
Spaniards,  and  was  cultivated  under  certain  restrictions. 
At  present  Mexico  is  considered  an  ideal  country,  in 
point  of  soil,  climate,  &c.,  for  its  cultivation,  and  the 
yield  per  acre  is  high,  and  as  far  as  natural  con- 
ditions are  concerned  the  staple  is  a very  sure  one. 
Mexico,  of  recent  years,  has  passed  the  point  of  sup- 
plying her  own  demands,  and  now  exports  sugar  to  a 
considerable  value,  although  a falling-off  in  the  last  year 
or  so  has  resulted  upon  disturbed  market  conditions 
abroad.  The  total  production  of  cane  for  1905  is  given 
as  840,000  tons,  at  a value  .£2,650,000  (see  page  293). 

Coffee  was  originally  brought  to  Mexico  in  1790.  Very 
good  quality  is  produced  in  some  regions,  and  the  largest 
output  is  made  from  the  State  of  Vera  Cruz.  The 
industry  is  subject  to  fluctuations,  due  to  foreign 
markets,  but  Mexican  coffee  is  in  growing  favour 
abroad,  and  the  production  for  1905  is  given  as  20,000 
tons,  with  a value  of  .£1,500,000. 

Chocolate. — An  indigenous  product,  whose  cultivation 
is  principally  in  the  hands  of  the  Indians.  The  output 
for  1905  was  1,375  tons,  at  a value  of  £ 160,000 . 

Maize. — This  furnishes  the  chief  article  of  food  for 
the  working  classes,  the  tortillas.  Notwithstanding  the 
generally  favourable  conditions  for  its  productions, 
import  is  still  necessary  in  times  of  drought.  The  value 
of  maize  production  for  1905  was  nearly  £9,000,000. 

Wheat. — This  is  grown  entirely  upon  the  cold  or 
temperate  lands  of  the  plateau,  but  irrigation  is 
necessary,  and  in  times  of  drought  import  from  the 
United  States  is  necessary.  In  1905  the  production  was 
132,000  tons,  valued  at  £2,215,000.  The  value  of  Barley 
produced  is  about  one-fourth  of  this. 

Beans  or  Frijoles. — A staple  article  of  diet  among  all 
classes  ; were  produced  in  1905  to  the  value  of  nearly 
£1,000,000. 

Fibres. — Henequen  or  Sisal  hemp  is  one  of  the 

20 


290 


MEXICO 


principal  of  Mexico's  agricultural  products,  and  its 
producers  are  among  the  wealthiest  people  in  the 
country,  especially  in  Yucatan.  For  the  year  1905 
the  production  was  50,250  tons,  at  a value  of  nearly 
.£3,000,000.  The  Ixtle  fibre  production  gave  a value 
of  about  .£200,000. 

Pulque. — This,  the  national  beverage  of  Mexico’s  work- 
ing class,  is  made  from  maguey,  and  the  value  of  its 
production  for  1905  was  about  £800,000. 

India-rubber. — The  Castilloa  elastica  is  indigenous  to 
Mexico,  and  there  are  large  areas  in  the  tropical  part  of 
the  country  where  it  is  encountered,  and  some  consider- 
able planting  has  taken  place  of  recent  years.  Some 
thirty  or  more  companies  are  engaged  in  this  industry, 
and  some  millions  of  trees  have  been  planted,  and  whilst 
success  has  crowned  their  efforts  in  many  cases,  and  the 
industry  seems  a safe  one  under  proper  conditions,  it 
must  be  regarded  as  yet  in  a preliminary  stage.  More- 
over, the  industry’s  reputation  has  had  to  contend  against 
frauds  which  have  been  perpetrated  upon  the  investing 
public  of  America  and  Great  Britain.  The  guayule 
shrub  is  now  a further  source  of  Mexican  rubber.  It  is 
a wild  shrub  occupying  the  area  of  the  northern  plains, 
and  was  unconsidered  until  recently,  but  now  a thriving 
industry  has  been  established  through  the  discovery  of 
its  rubber-bearing  property  by  a German  chemist.  In 
this  connection  I may  say  that  I sent  a sample  of  the 
guayule  to  London  from  Mexico  ten  years  ago,  believing 
it  to  be  of  value,  but  my  friends  failed  to  investigate 
it  and  so  lost  a fortune.  It  is  doubtful  if  Mexico 
will  ever  compete  with  the  Amazonian  basin  of  Peru 
and  Brazil  as  a rubber-producing  country.  The 
output  for  1905,  not  including  guayule,  was  valued  at 
.£44,300.  It  came  principally  from  Vera  Cruz  and 
Tabasco. 

Other  main  articles  of  Mexican  produce  are  given 
in  the  following  resume,  which  serves  to  show  the 
extent  of  the  country's  agricultural  resources,  in  their 
variety  and  order  of  value. 


NATURAL  RESOURCES 


291 


1 Resume  of  Agricultural  Produce  : Last  Available  Returns. 
(Fractions  omitted). 


Article. 

Maize  

Cotton 

Henequen  (Sisal  hemp 

Sugar-cane  

Wheat 

Coffee 

Chilli  peppers 

Frijoles  (beans) 

Pulque  ...  

Tobacco  

Barley 

Rice  

Mezcal  (spirits) 

Ixtle  fibre  

Pease  

Chocolate  (cacao) 

Chewing  gum 

Tequila  (spirits) 

Other  spirits 

Potatoes  

Peanuts 

Sweet  potatoes 

White  beans 

Vetch  ( alfalfa ) 

Sesame 

Crude  india-rubber  .. 
Yucca  


Value  £. 

8.965.000 

3.340.000 
2,933.500 

2.644.000 
2,215,200 
1,508,700 

950.000 
933,200 

800.000 
606,800 
562,500 

273.000 

256.000 

202.000 

200.000 

160.000 

150.000 

135.000 
H3,500 

95.300 
92,800 

71.000 
70,200 

54.000 

51.000 

44.300 
17,100 


These,  with  other  minor  matters,  give  a total  for  the 
annual  value  of  agricultural  products,  of  approximately 
£27,500,000. 

Fruit  Culture. — A wide  range  of  fruits  are  grown  and 
marketed  throughout  the  different  climatic  regions  of 
Mexico,  and  the  following  list  of  these  is  of  much  interest 
to  horticulturists  : — Alligator  pears  ( ahuacates ),  ciruelas 
(plums),  cocoanuts,  apricots,  apples,  dates,  peaches, 
strawberries,  pomegranates,  guavas,  figs,  limes,  lemons, 
mamey,2  mangoes,  melons,  quinces,  oranges,  nuts,  pears, 
pineapples,  bananas,  tunas  (the  fruit  of  the  nopal), 
grapes,  zapote.  The  considerable  trade  in  these  will 
be  gathered  from  the  fact  that  its  value  yearly  amounts 
to  more  than  .£1,000,000. 

1 Compiled  from  the  Mexican  Year  Book,  1908. 

2 This  strange  fruit  is  known  as  “ the  fruit  of  the  Aztec  kings.” 


292 


MEXICO 


Forestry. — As  has  been  shown,  the  country  is  rich  in 
woods  for  constructional  and  cabinet  purposes.  Laws 
are  being  enacted  regarding  the  preservation  and  cultiva- 
tion of  forests,  and  subsidies  are  to  be  granted  in  this 
connection  to  cultivators.  Among  the  kinds  of  timber 
either  natural  or  cultivated,  in  addition  to  those  already 
enumerated,  are  : — Cypress,  poplar,  myrtle,  balsam, 
Brazil-wood,  cinnamon,  mahogany,  cherry,  cedar,  copal, 
mezquite,  ebony,  oak,  ash,  beech,  osier,  mulberry,  orange, 
walnut,  pine,  log-wood  (campeche),  rosewood,  spruce, 
willow,  and  numerous  others  bearing  native  names 
which  have  no  equivalent  in  English,  forming  a total 
of  more  than  seventy-five  kinds.  The  value  of  these 
timbers,  felled  and  marketed,  is  about  £2,225,000  per 
annum,  and  constantly  growing. 

Stock-raising. — This  is  an  important  and  non-specula- 
tive  industry,  and  the  owners  of  the  cattle-ranches  are 
generally  wealthy.  The  industry  can  be  conducted  on  a 
large  or  small  scale.  The  principal  demand  is  a home 
one,  although  some  export  to  the  United  States  takes 
place,  with  a steady  output.  The  exports  from  1901  to 
1907  fluctuated  between  50,000  to  200,000  head.  The 
great  plains  of  the  north  are  in  the  hands  of  the  large 
landowners,  but  on  the  coast  foot-hills,  where  pasturage 
abounds,  small  parcels  of  land  can  be  purchased.  On 
the  great  plateau  the  droughts  at  times  cause  severe  loss, 
and  I have  on  one  occasion  observed  cattle  dying  about 
the  plain  of  thirst,  and  others  whose  lives  were  only 
saved  by  feeding  them  with  pieces  of  succulent 
palm-stem.  On  these  arid  plains  water  is  generally 
encountered  in  the  subsoil  in  wells  of  not  extreme 
depths,  and  these  norias,  as  the  well  and  windlass  are 
termed,  are  seen  in  many  places.  Laws  for  the 
encouragement  of  stock-raising  have  been  promulgated. 
The  value  of  Mexican  live-stock,  including  cattle,  horses, 
mules,  sheep,  goats,  and  hogs,  is  given  as  jfi  2,000,000. 

Land. — As  has  been  stated,  the  great  estates  or 
haciendas  are  held  by  landowners  who  rarely  part  with 
any  portion  thereof,  and  as  capital  is  not  always  plentiful 


NATURAL  RESOURCES 


293 


among  them,  they  are  sometimes  “ land  poor  ” with  a 
resulting  lack  of  development.  The  Mexican  landed 
aristocracy  consider  it  a point  of  honour  almost,  not  to 
part  with  their  land.  The  problems  which  have  to  be 
considered  in  connection  with  Mexican  agriculture  are  : 
the  establishing  of  irrigation  works,  the  system  of  land 
tenure,  the  question  of  labour  ; whilst  as  regards  the 
tropical  products  there  exists  the  added  element  of 
fluctuation  in  foreign  markets.  Thus  the  export  trade 
of  sugar  in  1905  reached  a value  of  £ 600,000 , whilst 
a year  later  it  fell  to  .£67,000,  due  to  fluctuations  in 
European  markets  : and  this  matter  also  affects  coffee. 
Special  laws  concerning  irrigation  works  have  been 
promulgated,  and  Government  subsidies  are  granted  for 
such,  and  there  are  good  openings  here  for  enterprise 
and  capital.  An  international  dam  is  to  be  built  on  the 
Rio  Grande,  for  the  equitable  distribution  of  the  waters 
of  this  river  for  irrigation. 

Lands  within  the  area  or  division  known  as  vacant  or 
national  lands  can  be  acquired  by  Mexican  or  foreign 
inhabitants  of  the  Republic  by  “denouncement”  or 
claim,  which  entails  certain  legal  formalities  and  the 
annual  payment  of  a tax.  This  latter  varies  according 
to  different  states,  as  the  land  is  naturally  worth  more 
in  some  situations  than  in  others,  and  ranges  from  2 
pesos — a peso  equals  about  2s. — per  hectare  (or  about  2 £ 
acres),  in  Lower  California,  to  27  pesos  in  Morelos,  being 
4,  5,  10,  17,  20  pesos  in  many  states,  and  100  in  the 
Federal  District.  Payment  for  these  lands  can  be  made 
in  Three  per  cent.  Consolidated  Debt  Bonds,  purchased 
at  70  per  cent,  of  their  nominal  value  and  received  by  the 
Government  at  par. 

Colonisation. — The  conditions  which  the  colonist  in 
Mexico  will  encounter  will  have  been  fully  learned  by  a 
general  perusal  of  these  pages.  There  is  much  room 
for  colonists  and  they  are  welcomed.  Great  care  must 
be  taken  to  avoid  the  numerous  land  schemes  which  are 
continually  sprung  upon  investors  by  land  sharks  and 
speculators,  principally  of  American  nationality.  A 


294 


MEXICO 


number  of  people  have  lost  their  small  capital  through 
investing  in  ill-judged  or  fraudulent  plantation  schemes, 
and  as  to  the  United  States,  the  abuse  became  so  marked 
that  the  Government  of  that  country  at  length  declined 
to  permit  the  mails  to  be  used  by  promoters  of  some 
Mexican  land  schemes.  I have  seen  the  most  extra- 
ordinary prospectuses,  emanating  from  the  United  States, 
calculating  and  offering  systems  of  life  assurance  and 
annuities  based  upon  the  yield  of  rubber  of  some  tropical 
jungle,  which  they  held  in  Mexico.  A large  number  of 
these  “ buccaneers  " have  been  operating  of  recent  years, 
and  bona  fide  companies  have  to  bear  the  ill-fame  so 
created  in  connection  with  tropical  land  dealings. 
Nevertheless,  the  individual  often  does  and  may  obtain 
success  and  achieve  profits  amid  the  easy  conditions  and 
temperate  climates  of  some  of  Mexico’s  fertile  regions. 
But  capital  is  indispensable  to  his  success,  and  no 
emigrant  should  proceed  there  without  it. 

Labour. — With  regard  to  native  labour,  there  is  not 
sufficient.  The  peon  earns  a low  wage,  but  the  demand 
is  likely  to  increase  this  considerably  in  coming  years. 
Mexico  does  not  prohibit  the  introduction  of  Asiatics, 
but  these  are  not  a good  element,  and  if  such  a policy 
were  continued  in  indiscriminately  it  would  be  a vast 
mistake  and  would  injure  Mexico.  The  immigrants 
Mexico  really  wants  are  Europeans,  and  their  valleys 
and  forests  are  better  left  unworked  than  stuffed  with  the 
yellow  race.  Similar  conditions  may  be  pointed  to  in 
Peru  and  other  countries  of  Spanish-America.  Mexico 
boasts  that  she  is  the  “bridge  of  the  world’s  commerce” 
and  that  she  looks  towards  Asia  with  equal  favour  as 
towards  Europe.  But  the  importation  of  Asiatics  will  be 
disastrous,  and  the  native  pcones  are  a superior  race  in 
every  respect  and  must  rather  be  encouraged  to  multiply. 
As  regards  the  labour  of  the  white  man  in  the  tropics, 
Nature  does  not  intend  him  to  work  in  the  same  way  as 
in  northern  latitudes,  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  a great 
adaptability  to  environment  will  be  brought  about  yet. 

To  turn  now  to  a geographical  distribution  of  the 


NATURAL  RESOURCES 


295 


agricultural  and  other  resources  of  the  country.  As  has 
been  shown  throughout  these  chapters,  Mexico  embodies 
a wide  range  of  varying  topography,  climate,  and  natural 
resources.  The  thirty-one  States  and  Territories  into 
which  the  Republic  is  divided  politically  fall  into  groups, 
to  a certain  extent  physically,  some  of  them  being  mainly 
upon  the  Great  Plateau,  whilst  others  occupy  the  Pacific 
or  Atlantic  slopes  and  southern  region,  with  their  low- 
land and  tropical  conditions.  In  some  cases,  however, 
some  of  the  states  partake  of  all  the  conditions  of  high- 
land, lowland,  and  mountain  region. 

These  great  territories,  the  mere  names  of  which  are 
often  unknown  to  British  readers,  are  full  of  interest  and 
variety,  both  as  regards  their  natural  features  and  the 
human  element  which  inhabits  them.  Names  which 
appear  upon  the  map  seem  to  the  casual  reader  to 
embody  the  idea  of  vast  uninhabited  deserts  or  bleak 
mountain  ranges  alone.  They  do  not  come  within  the 
scope  of  ordinary  knowledge,  and  the  traveller  entering 
such  places  is  astonished  to  discover  beautiful  cities  and 
picturesque  towns,  their  inhabitants  living  in  a state  of 
advanced  civilisation  and  engaged  in  thriving  industries, 
the  whole  being  in  the  nature  of  a revelation  to  his  pre- 
conceived ideas  of  the  country.  We  had  forgotten,  or 
never  knew,  that  a large  productive  part  of  the  North 
American  continent  lay  in  this  cornucopia-shaped  land 
of  Mexico,  or  that  single  provinces,  in  some  instances 
the  size  of  Great  Britain,  sleep  here  under  a southern 
sun  and  support  a pastoral  and  contented  population  of 
considerable  extent.  Some  of  them  are  remote  from 
main  routes  of  travel  and  from  the  busy  world  outside 
them — remote  but  of  great  future  possibilities  ; others 
are  valuable  centres  of  life  and  industry  upon  trunk  lines 
of  travel,  and  it  will  be  the  object  of  this  and  the  follow- 
ing chapter  to  give  a succinct  idea  of  their  condition  and 
natural  resources. 

We  will  begin  with  the  Maritime  States  which  form 
the  extensive  Pacific  littoral  from  the  frontier  with  the 
United  States  to  that  of  Guatemala — a zone  of  territory 
more  than  2,000  miles  long. 


296 


MEXICO 


The  great  State  of  Sonora  lies  at  the  north-west  corner 
of  the  country,  forming  the  littoral  washed  by  the  Gulf 
of  California  on  the  west  and  bounded  by  the  United 
States — Arizona — on  the  north.  Its  very  considerable 
area  of  76,620  square  miles  supports  a population  of 
about  222,000  inhabitants.  The  state  is  traversed  longi- 
tudinally by  the  great  range  of  the  Western  Sierra  Madre, 
with  various  secondary  chains,  forming  a rugged  region, 
with,  however,  a flat  zone  upon  the  coast.  All  its  rivers 
descend  from  the  Sierra  to  the  Gulf,  the  five  principal  of 
these  ranging  in  length  from  145  miles  to  390  miles — the 
Yaqui  River,  which  debouches  at  Guaymas,  the  principal 
port  of  the  Gulf  of  California.  The  climate  and  tempera- 
ture are  very  varied  according  to  the  altitude,  the  coast 
region  being  hot  and  dry,  a low,  arid  region  generally, 
with  an  occasional  rainfall  from  a cloudless  sky — a 
peculiarity  of  that  zone.  Temperate  slopes  and  valleys, 
as  we  ascend,  are  succeeded  by  the  cold  and  occasional 
frosts  of  the  mountain  region.  As  a whole  the  climate 
is  healthy.  The  coast  fisheries  are  important,  and 
valuable  pearls  are  produced  from  the  pearl  oysters  here. 
A varied  fauna  and  flora  are  encountered  throughout  the 
state,  but  although  the  soil  is  fertile,  agriculture  is  back- 
ward, due  to  the  lack  of  irrigation  works  necessary  for 
development,  in  parts  of  the  region.  However,  consider- 
able quantities  of  sugar-cane,  tobacco,  cereals,  fruits, 
maguey,  &c.,  are  raised,  and  cattle  bred. 

But  mining  is  the  great  industry  here,  and  Sonora  is 
one  of  the  richest  parts  of  the  earth’s  surface  as  regards 
minerals.  The  state  was  one  of  the  main  contributors 
to  Spain’s  coffers  before  the  War  of  Independence,  but 
ruin  ensued  then,  followed  by  the  extraordinary  regenera- 
tion of  the  past  decade.  Capitalists  of  the  United  States 
have  invested  heavily  in  the  copper  and  gold  mines,  and 
exports  of  minerals  to  that  country  reach  millions  of 
pesos  annually.  There  is  some  British  capital  success- 
fully employed  also  in  the  mines.  Modern  copper- 
smelters  turning  out  hundreds  of  tons  of  bars  and  large 
gold-quartz  crushing  mills  are  in  operation.  Numerous 


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297 


mines  are  being  worked,  and  some  coalfields  are  being 
exploited.  The  mountain  region  is  covered  with  the  old 
workings  of  bygone  days,  and  the  streams’  margins  and 
valleys  contain  hundreds  of  old  arrastres,  which  attest  the 
former  activity  of  the  Spaniards  and  natives.  Much  is 
being  done  in  this  field,  but  much  more  remains  to  be 
accomplished,  and  the  prospector  and  the  capitalist  find 
ample  scope  for  their  efforts.  In  the  chapter  upon 
mining  will  be  found  the  names  of  some  of  the  principal 
enterprises  in  operation. 

The  state  suffers  from  lack  of  railways,  as  is  natural 
from  its  mountainous  character,  there  being  but  one — 
that  from  Nogales,  at  the  boundary  with  Arizona,  to  the 
port  of  Guaymas  on  the  Gulf  of  California,  about  255 
miles  long,  connecting  to  the  north  of  Nogales  with  the 
Southern  Pacific  Transcontinental  Railway  of  the  United 
States.  There  are  several  good  roads  and  a telegraph 
system.  Timber  and  water  are  plentiful  in  some  parts 
of  the  state  ; in  others  scarce  or  absent.  The  capital  of 
the  state  is  Hermisillo,  with  a population  of  11,000. 

Leaving  for  a moment  the  Mexican  mainland  and 
crossing  the  Gulf  of  California,  we  come  to  the  remark- 
able peninsula  of  Lower  California,  or  Baja  California. 
This  great  tongue  of  land,  isolated  almost  from  the  rest 
of  the  Republic,  extends  paralleling  the  coast  of  the 
mainland  at  a distance  of  60  to  100  miles  therefrom,  with 
a length  of  more  than  900  miles  and  a width  varying 
from  25  to  125  miles.  Its  area  is  48,300  square  miles, 
supporting  a small  population  of  about  50,000  inhabi- 
tants. On  the  north  it  is  bounded  by  the  United  States 
— California  ; on  the  east  the  Gulf  of  California,  and  on 
the  west  and  south  by  the  Pacific  Ocean.  There  are,  in 
addition,  numerous  islands  which  fringe  the  coast. 

A range  of  hills  traverses  the  peninsula  longitudinally, 
paralleling  and  near  to  the  Gulf  coast,  with  a highest 
peak  of  4,230  feet  above  sea-level.  Of  granite  in  its 
highest  portion,  the  range  is  of  volcanic  origin  mainly, 
and  gives  an  arid  and  desolate  character  to  the  land. 
Naturally,  from  its  topography  rivers  are  almost  non- 


298 


MEXICO 


existent  except  for  a few  small  streams,  the  Colorado 
River,  dividing  it  from  Arizona  and  Sonora,  being  the 
only  one  of  importance,  and  indeed  this  is  a river  of 
the  United  States,  simply  forming  the  boundary  of  the 
peninsula  for  a short  distance. 

With  so  limited  a hydrographical  system  and  a scarcity 
of  rainfall,  irrigation  and  agricultural  possibilities  are  but 
limited.  In  the  humid  portion  of  the  territory  sugar- 
cane, tropical  fruits,  vines,  maguey , cereals,  and  other 
products  are,  however,  raised.  There  are  some  natural 
products,  especially  the  orchilla,  or  Spanish  moss,  which 
grows  profusely  in  some  parts  of  the  west  coast  and  is 
gathered  and  used  commercially  for  dyeing.  The 
climate  in  the  north  is  hot,  but  dry  and  more  temperate 
towards  the  south.  The  flora,  few  in  species,  are  those  of 
the  other  northern  states  of  Mexico.  Among  the  fauna 
are — on  the  west  coast — sperm  whales,  otters,  and  seals. 
The  Gulf  of  California  is  stated  to  be  one  of  the  finest 
fishing  grounds  in  the  world  : including  pearl-fishing. 

If  Baja  California  is  poor  in  species  of  organic  life, 
Nature  has  compensated  it  in  the  mineral  world,  and  that 
peninsula  is  considered  one  of  the  most  highly  minera- 
lised parts  of  the  North  American  continent.  Copper, 
silver,  and  gold  are  among  its  most  important  products, 
and  quicksilver,  opal,  sulphur,  and  rock-salt  exist.  The 
famous  Boleo  copper  mine  is  situated  in  this  territory, 
and  some  extensive  placer  gold  mines  are  found  near 
Ensenada.  The  principal  towns  are  La  Paz,  the  capital 
of  the  southern  district,  and  Ensenada,  of  the  northern. 

Returning  to  the  Mexican  mainland  we  come  to  the 
states  lying  to  the  south  of  those  already  described. 
Beginning  at  the  west,  as  before,  we  have  the  State  of 
Sinaloa.  This  long  narrow  region  lies  between  the 
Sierra  Madre  on  the  east  and  the  Pacific  Ocean  and 
Gulf  of  California  on  the  west,  with  a coast-line  nearly 
400  miles  in  length.  Its  area  is  27,000  square  miles,  with 
a population  of  about  297,000  inhabitants.  Topographi- 
cally the  state  may  be  divided  into  three  zones — the 
coast,  the  foothills,  and  the  mountains  ; and  in  this  it 


NATURAL  RESOURCES 


299 


reminds  the  traveller  of  California,  to  which  it  bears 
resemblance  in  many  physical  and  climatic  respects. 
The  coast  zone  consists  of  a well-watered  and  fertile 
strip,  producing  all  the  crops  of  the  tropics.  Next 
comes  the  foothill  zone,  rising  gently  to  an  elevation  of 
2,000  feet,  and  merging  into  a fine  timbered  belt  alter- 
nating with  extensive  natural  pastures.  Well-watered 
valleys  intersect  this  zone,  capable  of  much  cultivation, 
and  with  splendid  possibilities  for  irrigation,  cattle-raising 
and  timber-cutting.  Leaving  this  we  enter  on  the  more 
broken  and  mountainous  country,  with  a heavy  growth 
of  pine  and  oak  forest,  grazing  lands,  and  frequent 
streams,  extending  up  to  4,000  or  5,000  feet  elevation. 
This  also  is  the  rich  mineral-bearing  zone,  whose  oil 
deposits  have  justly  caused  the  state  to  be  considered 
among  the  foremost  in  the  Republic  in  this  field. 

The  Sierra  Madre  has  a general  and  continuous  eleva- 
tion above  sea-level  throughout  the  great  length  of  this 
state,  of  8,000  to  12,000  feet,  except  the  passes,  which  are 
crossed  at  much  lower  altitudes.  The  mountains  give 
rise  to  numerous  rivers,  and  the  state  may  be  considered 
more  freely  endowed  with  water-courses  than  any  other 
in  the  Republic.  Among  the  first  of  these  is  the  great 
River  Fuerte,  with  a large  volume  of  water  : and  with 
ten  other  important  streams  it  rises  amid  the  snow  and 
rain  of  the  Sierra,  flowing  thence  through  fertile  valleys 
to  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

The  climate  of  Sinaloa  is  good  ; in  the  upper  regions 
excellent.  The  coast  zone  is  hot  during  the  dry  season, 
and  here,  in  places,  the  malaria  found  on  the  coast  of  both 
North  and  South  America  is  encountered  at  times.  The 
principal  agricultural  products  are  sugar  and  cotton,  and 
these  are  followed  by  the  numerous  fruits,  vegetables, 
fibres,  timber,  and  other  matters  common  to  these  rich 
zones,  at  their  respective  elevations,  including  coffee  and 
the  cocoanut  trees.  Cattle  and  horse-breeding  flourishes 
under  the  favourable  conditions  the  region  affords  for  this 
industry.  Wild  game  is  freely  encountered,  as  pheasants, 
quail,  and  other  birds,  deer,  &c.  The  cost  of  living 


300 


MEXICO 


is  low,  the  soil  fertile,  and  labour  cheap,  conditions 
which  seem  to  promise  growing  prosperity.  The  mineral 
resources  include  copper,  gold,  silver,  and  other  metals. 

The  remarkable  resources  of  this  favoured  part  of  the 
country  have  largely  remained  fallow  due  to  the  lack  of 
railways.  No  lines  yet  connect  the  state  with  the  rest 
of  the  community.  Recently,  available  passes  over  the 
Sierra  which  isolate  the  state  from  the  railway  system 
of  the  Republic,  have  been  brought  into  notice,  and 
capitalists,  principally  American,  are  engaged  upon  pro- 
jects to  build  lines  to  the  coast,  traversing  the  state, 
among  them  being  the  Mexican  Central  Railway. 

The  capital  city  of  Sinaloa  is  Culiacan  ; and  the  prin- 
cipal that  of  Mazatlan,  the  handsome  and  flourishing  sea- 
port, which  awaits  the  coming  of  a railway.  Probably  a 
busy  future  awaits  the  development  of  this  state. 

The  Territory  of  Tepic,  formerly  part  of  the  State  of 
Jalisco  to  the  south,  is  the  next  of  the  Pacific  littoral 
states.  This  small  region  was  separated  from  Jalisco  in 
1884,  on  account  of  long  rebellion  against  the  Federal 
Government,  and  it  remains  as  a Federal  Territory,  and 
not  a state.  Its  coast-line  is  155  miles  long  ; its  area 
is  10,950  square  miles,  and  population  150,000.  The 
climate  is  very  hot  on  the  coast  zone  and  temperate  in 
the  hills.  Several  rivers  and  streams  flow  through  it 
from  the  Sierra,  some  of  which  are  navigable  for  short 
distances  from  its  mouth.  The  region  partakes  much  of 
the  character  of  that  to  the  north,  already  described,  and 
of  that  of  its  parent  state  Jalisco,  which  follows.  The 
most  important  agricultural  product  is  sugar,  followed  by 
rice,  maize,  and  coffee  respectively.  Mining — gold  and 
silver — is  an  important  industry,  and  numerous  small 
native  plants  exist  for  ore-treatment.  The  lack  of  any 
railway  communication,  however,  prevents  the  develop- 
ment of  the  resources  of  what  is  a promising  territory. 
Various  railway  projects  are  under  consideration,  having 
as  their  terminus  the  port  of  San  Bias,  and  connecting 
this  and  Tepic,  the  capital  town,  with  the  railway  system 
of  Mexico  beyond  the  Sierras. 


NATURAL  RESOURCES 


301 


Jalisco,  with  its  beautiful  capital  of  Guadalajara,  is  the 
next  Pacific  littoral  state.  It  is  290  miles  in  length, 
and  with  its  extreme  breadth  of  268  miles  it  stretches 
across  the  Sierra  Madre  and  occupies  a portion  of  the 
Great  Plateau.  Its  area  is  53,800  square  miles,  and  its 
population  1,200,000. 

The  state  is  exceedingly  hilly,  being  crossed  by  four 
Cordilleras  and  other  lesser  ranges,  and  as  we  traverse 
it  we  pass  from  tableland  to  valley,  desert  plain  to  rugged 
spur  and  peak  amid  scenery  often  of  a varied  and  pictu- 
resque character.  The  beautiful  lake  of  Chapala,  eighty 
miles  long,  is  the  equal  of  many  of  the  world’s  pleasure 
resorts.  Into  this  lake  flows  the  Santiago  river,  near  its 
headwaters,  and  emerging  thence,  crosses  the  state  and 
flows  through  the  Sierra,  emptying  into  the  Pacific  at  San 
Bias  in  Tepic.  Various  other  streams  flow  to  the  ocean, 
crossing  the  coast  zone  and  affording  the  means  of  irriga- 
tion to  its  arid  plains.  The  configuration  of  these  rivers 
gives  rise  to  ravines  of  great  depth  which  form  remarkable 
topographical  features.  The  Santiago  river  in  apart  of  its 
course,  near  the  state  capital,  forms  the  beautiful  falls  of 
Juanacatlan,  nearly  500  feet  wide,  justly  described  as  the 
Niagara  of  Mexico  : elsewhere  depicted. 

The  climate  varies  greatly,  from  the  cold  of  the  moun- 
tains to  the  heat  of  the  plains,  and  a consequent  variety 
in  the  flora  and  agricultural  products  is  encountered,  rang- 
ing from  those  of  the  tropical  to  the  cold  zone,  from 
rubber  and  cocoa  to  wheat  ; whilst  numerous  kinds  of 
timber  grow  in  the  forest  areas,  including  those  most 
useful  to  commerce.  The  prosperity  of  the  state  is  based 
on  its  agriculture.  There  are  more  than  fifty  sugar  mills 
in  the  state,  with  their  corresponding  area  under  cane 
cultivation,  and  a similar  number  of  flour  mills,  whilst 
great  quantities  of  molasses  are  produced,  and  textile 
fabrics  woven.  A large  number  of  tobacco  factories 
exist  in  the  different  towns,  and,  in  brief,  manu- 
facturing of  other  articles,  food,  clothing,  and  general 
industries,  show  a considerable  and  rapid  develop- 
ment. 


302 


MEXICO 


The  mining  industry  is  less  important  than  in  other  of 
the  states,  but  gold,  silver,  and  petroleum  are  found. 

The  fine  city  of  Guadalajara,  described  in  another 
chapter,  is  situated  upon  the  tableland  portion  of  the 
state,  and  so  enjoys  the  benefit  of  railway  connection 
with  the  main  line  of  the  Republic,  by  means  of  the 
Mexican  Central.  This  line  runs  westwardly  through 
the  state  as  far  as  Ameca,  approaching  the  coast  at 
Tuxpan  and  Colima  : only  a short  portion  remaining 
to  reach  the  seaport  of  San  Bias,  in  the  state  of  Colima, 
on  the  Pacific. 

Colima  is  a small  state,  bordering  on  the  Pacific  next 
below  Jalisco,  with  an  area  of  4,250  square  miles,  and 
population  of  66,000  inhabitants.  Flat  near  the  coast, 
the  land  is  mountainous  in  the  interior.  There  are 
several  rivers,  the  waters  of  which,  after  furnishing  the 
means  of  irrigation,  and  water-power  for  various  textile 
factories,  flow  to  the  sea.  The  climate,  good  in  the  north, 
is  hot  and  subject  to  malaria  upon  the  coast.  The  prin- 
cipal products  of  the  state  are  agricultural ; rice,  corn, 
sugar-cane,  and  coffee  being  foremost  among  these.  The 
soil  is  generally  fertile  ; and  in  the  northern  parts  the 
woods  and  canyons  favour  cattle-raising,  in  which  in- 
dustry various  large  haciendas  are  engaged.  There  are 
also  great  palm  plantations,  which  produce  cocoanut  oil, 
whilst  timber  of  valuable  kinds  exists.  Some  trade  is 
carried  on  in  the  hides  and  skins  of  animals  and  reptiles 
— cattle,  deer,  “tigers,"  crocodiles,  &c.  Minerals  exist — 
copper,  gold,  silver,  but  have  been  little  prospected  as  yet. 

The  means  of  communication,  like  those  of  the  other 
littoral  states,  are  principally  by  sea,  and  the  port  and 
harbour  of  Manzanillo  is  one  of  the  best  upon  the  coast. 
But  a line  of  railway  connects  this  seaport  with  the 
picturesque  capital  of  the  state,  Colima,  surrounded  by 
tropical  vegetation  and  backed  by  its  volcanoes.  This 
line  of  railway  is  being  continued  to  join  the  main  system 
of  the  Republic,  beyond  the  mountains,  and  but  a short 
portion  remains  to  be  completed,  as  described  above. 

With  a short  littoral  zone  upon  the  Pacific,  the  State 


THE  PACIFIC  COAST  ZONE:  THE  PLAZA  AND  ENVIRONS  OE  THE  CITY  Ol-  COLIMA. 


NATURAL  RESOURCES 


303 


of  Michoacan  stretches  far  inland  towards  the  Great 
Plateau.  From  the  burning  sun  which  beats  upon  its 
shores  to  the  cold  mountain  regions  on  the  borders  of 
Queretaro  this  state  has  a wide  range  of  climate  and 
temperature,  with  a flora  and  agricultural  products 
of  corresponding  diversity,  such  as  described  for  its 
sister  states  of  this  zone.  The  area  is  about  22,600 
square  miles,  and  the  population  931,000  inhabitants 
approximately. 

The  state,  in  certain  portions,  is  exceedingly  well- 
timbered,  and  provides  material  for  sleepers  for  the  rail- 
ways throughout  the  Republic.  Agriculture  is  the  chief 
industry,  among  which  coffee,  wheat,  sugar,  and  rice 
are  prominent,  whilst  the  wild  rubber-tree  which  abounds 
on  the  hot  zone  might  be  made  a source  of  profit. 
Mining  is  not  neglected.  High-grade  silver  ores  are 
produced  and  sent  to  the  smelting  works  at  Aguascalientes, 
and  copper  mines  are  being  actively  worked,  as  well  as 
gold  ores.  Coal  beds  exist  also,  and  will  be  of  impor- 
tance to  the  state. 

Several  railways  enter  this  territory,  and  give  outlet  to 
the  produce  of  its  eastern  side,  but  none  reach  the  coast, 
although  such  aline  has  long  been  projected,  to  terminate 
at  the  port  of  Manzanillo  in  Colima.  The  great  Balsas 
river  traverses  a portion  of  the  state,  emptying  thence 
into  the  Pacific  Ocean.  Morelia,  the  capital  of  this  rich 
zone  of  Mexican  territory,  stands  at  an  elevation  of 
6,500  feet  above  sea-level,  and  with  its  handsome  cathe- 
dral and  square  is  a typical  city  of  Mexico. 

In  Guerrero  we  are  reaching  the  narrow  portion  of 
Mexico,  and  the  coast-line  has  turned  more  in  east 
and  west  direction.  Consequently  the  southern  side  of 
this  state  is  bathed  by  the  Pacific.  Remote  from  the 
railways  and  isolated  from  the  rest  of  the  Republic  by 
the  great  Southern  Sierra  Madre,  Guerrero,  notwithstand- 
ing its  varied  natural  resources,  has  remained  in  a com- 
paratively undeveloped  condition. 

The  area  of  this  state  is  28,200  square  miles,  with  a 
population  of  480,000  inhabitants.  The  long  coast-line 


304 


MEXICO 


of  310  miles  affords  various  ports,  and  the  famous  bay  of 
Acapulco  is  classed  among  the  finest  harbours  in  the 
world.  Indeed,  it  has  been  placed  second.  The  state 
is  mountainous  almost  throughout  its  entire  area,  with 
narrow  valleys  between  the  spurs  of  the  Sierra  Madre — 
which  approaches  near  to  the  coast  here — with  small 
plains  upon  the  margins  of  the  streams.  The  highest 
peaks  of  the  Sierra  reach  the  height  of  8,300  feet  and 
9,250  feet.  The  principal  river  is  the  Balsas,  which  flows 
for  a very  considerable  distance  from  the  east  of  the 
Cordillera  or  Sierra — more  than  1,200  miles  from 
its  source  to  its  outlet  in  the  Pacific.  It  is  navigable 
for  about  150  miles  for  launches  and  other  small  craft. 

The  climate  varies  greatly  upon  the  coast,  excessive 
heat  being  encountered,  ranging  thence  through  the 
temperate  zone  up  to  the  exceeding  cold  of  the  moun- 
tains. The  state  as  a whole  is  healthy,  and  the  mountain 
breezes  bracing,  but  the  coast  is  subject  to  the  usual 
paludismo  or  malarial  fevers  of  Western  America  gene- 
rally. Pinto,  the  curious  mottled  skin  disease,  is  encoun- 
tered in  some  of  the  valleys  : as  in  Morelos. 

Of  railways  there  are  none,  the  main  route  of  travel 
from  the  City  of  Mexico  to  Acapulco  having  been,  ever 
since  the  time  of  Cortes,  a mountain  track,  the  Camino  Real, 
of  difficult  transit.  Various  projects  to  reach  Acapulco 
by  rail  have  been  put  forward,  but  none  consummated  so 
far,  the  nearest  rail  point  being  that  of  the  terminus  of  the 
Mexican  Central  Railway  on  the  Balsas  river. 

The  principal  products  of  the  state  attest  its  varied 
and  profuse  natural  resources;  sugar-cane,  rubber,  coffee, 
cotton,  cocoa,  cereals,  are  among  these,  whilst  the 
extensive  forests  afford  a great  variety  of  timber.  Oak 
grows  abundantly.  Mining  is  an  important  industry. 
The  historic  mines  of  Taxco,  mentioned  elsewhere,  are 
situated  in  the  district  of  that  name  near  the  picturesque 
town  of  Taxco  ; and  the  quicksilver  mines  of  Ahuituzco, 
and  the  iron  deposits  of  Chilpancingo,  the  capital,  are 
notable  occurrences  of  the  rich  mineral  zone  of  this 
state.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  future  holds 


NATURAL  RESOURCES  305 

much  in  store  commercially  for  Guerrero,  and,  indeed, 
recently  much  attention  has  been  drawn  to  it  as  a field 
for  enterprise,  both  by  British  and  American  capitalists. 
The  state  is  unique  in  its  resources  of  huge  forests,  iron 
and  quicksilver  mines,  whilst  it  is  traversed  by  the  longest 
of  Mexico’s  rivers,  and  possesses  thousands  of  square 
miles  of  unexplored  territory.  The  prehistoric  ruins 
which  are  encountered  in  such  large  numbers,  and  the 
remarkable  number  of  aboriginal  tribes  which  inhabit  it, 
speaking  various  languages,  render  it  of  much  interest 
ethnologically. 

Oaxaca,  the  Pacific  littoral  state  next  adjoining 
Guerrero,  is  a region  of  much  interest,  both  historically 
and  topographically.  The  character  of  the  Pacific  coast 
has  changed  somewhat  from  those  of  the  littoral  states 
further  north,  in  that  there  are  no  sandy  plains  bordering 
it,  for  the  waves  of  the  ocean  bathe  the  very  roots  of  the 
forest  trees  upon  parts  of  the  shore-line  of  this  great  state. 

The  area  of  Oaxaca  is  35,400  square  miles,  and  the 
population  numbers  some  800,000  souls,  of  which  the 
white  and  Mestizo  people  take  330,000,  the  remainder 
representing  the  various  Indian  tribes.  Due  to  its  varied 
physical  configuration,  the  state,  notwithstanding  that 
it  is  within  the  torrid  zone,  is  subject  to  a variety  of 
climate  and  temperature,  from  the  heat  of  the  coast  with 
its  occasional  paludismo  and  fevers  to  the  pleasant  atmo- 
sphere of  the  temperate  altitudes,  and  the  ever-blowing 
cold  winds  of  the  Cordilleran  summits.  Here  in  this 
region  the  Sierra  Madre  forms  a “ knot  ” and  ramifies 
greatly,  the  various  branches  breaking  up  the  topography, 
and  entering  into  the  adjoining  states.  The  central 
portion  of  the  territory  forms  the  divortia  aquarum  of 
the  continent  in  the  narrow  portion  embodying  the 
famous  isthmus  of  Tehuantepec,  separating  the  waters 
of  the  Atlantic  system  from  the  Pacific.  The  numerous 
rivers  of  Oaxaca  descend  variously  to  the  Pacific  Ocean 
and  Gulf  of  Mexico,  the  latter  after  traversing  the  State 
of  Vera  Cruz. 

The  scenery  in  places  is  grand  and  rugged,  the  mountain 

21 


306 


MEXICO 


slopes  are  covered  with  thick  woods,  and  the  valleys 
with  aromatic  shrubs  and  bright-hued  flowers,  rich  with 
animal  life.  Huge  trees  tower  upwards,  their  giant  limbs 
developed  in  a way  such  as  only  these  tropical  regions 
afford. 

The  agricultural  products  are  similar  to  those  enume- 
rated for  the  neighbouring  maritime  states — wheat,  barley, 
maize,  and  textile  plants  are  produced,  as  also  sugar- 
cane, cotton,  coffee.  The  great  forests  afford  oak,  pine, 
cedar,  mahogany,  ebony,  and  other  timber,  and  excellent 
natural  pasturage  abounds  for  cattle-raising,  which  is  an 
important  industry.  The  rich  valley  of  Oaxaca  is  a 
favoured  region,  with  a mild  and  healthy  climate.  To 
enumerate  all  the  plants  and  products  of  this  exuberant, 
tropical  region  would  be  to  fill  pages  with  names,  but 
it  may  be  said  that  almost  every  variety  of  tropical  and 
temperate  zone  fruit,  flower,  fibrous  plant,  cereal, 
vegetable,  and  timber  abound — a flora  such  as  could  not 
be  surpassed  anywhere.  There  are  vast  tracts  of  land  in 
this  state,  of  virgin  country,  consisting  of  pure  alluvial 
soil,  waiting  population  to  cultivate  it,  and  the  whole 
forms  an  agricultural  region  of  much  promise. 

Railway  construction  of  late  years  has  made  the  state 
a trans-continental  territory.  The  Tehuantepec  railway, 
elsewhere  described,  has  its  western  terminus  at  the  port 
of  Salina  Cruz,  having  traversed  the  state,  and  from  this 
important  route  midway  across  the  Isthmus  a line  of 
railway  runs  to  Oaxaca,  the  state  capital,  and  so  con- 
nects with  the  main  system  of  the  Republic.  Some 
years  ago  a serious  outbreak  of  yellow  fever  occurred 
upon  the  isthmus,  but  improving  hygienic  measures 
appear  to  have  prevented  a recurrence  of  this,  and  to 
have  diminished  the  almost  inevitable  malaria.  There 
are  other  short  lines  of  railway  in  the  state. 

The  city  of  Oaxaca  is  handsome  and  interesting,  and 
enjoys  a temperate  climate  due  to  its  elevation  of  more 
than  5,000  feet  above  sea-level.  It  justly  prides  itself 
upon  having  produced  some  of  Mexico’s  famous  men, 
including  Juarez  and  Porfirio  Diaz. 


MEXICO  S ARTIFICIAL  HARBOURS  ON  THE  PACIFIC  COAST:  THE  NEW  PORT  WORKS  OF  SALINA  CRUZ, 

TERMINUS  OF  THE  TEHUANTEPEC  RAILWAY. 


NATURAL  RESOURCES 


307 


Chiapas  is  the  southernmost  of  the  Mexican  states — 
the  last  upon  the  Pacific,  its  eastern  boundary  forming 
the  frontier  with  the  neighbouring  Republic  of  Guate- 
mala. Following  out  the  general  structure  of  Mexico’s 
littoral,  the  Sierra  Madre  parallels  the  Pacific  Ocean  here, 
leaving  a narrow  coast  strip,  but  with  a lack  of  good 
ports  and  navigable  rivers.  On  the  northern  side,  how- 
ever, the  Atlantic  watershed,  the  state  is  traversed  by 
navigable  streams  which  flow  to  the  Gulf  of  Campeche, 
notably  the  affluents  of  the  Grijalva  and  Usumacinta, 
traversing  the  neighbouring  State  of  Tabasco. 

The  country  is  generally  high  and  healthy,  of  an 
undulating  and  picturesque  character,  and  is  one  of  the 
best-watered  states  of  the  Republic.  There  is  no  barren 
land,  except  the  summits  of  the  rocky  ranges,  as  it  forms 

1a  tropical  region  tempered  by  altitude,  with  correspond- 
ing fertility  of  soil  and  profuse  vegetation.  Forests 
cover  the  slopes  and  canyons,  and  in  the  valleys  and  on 
the  plains  an  extensive  flora  and  range  of  agricultural 
products  is  encountered  common  to  this  zone. 

With  an  area  of  27,250  square  miles,  the  state  supports 
a population  of  about  361,000.  The  capital  is  Tuxtla 
Gutierrez,  which  is  reached  most  easily  by  navigation  in 
low-draught  boatsmp  the  Grijalva  or  Mezcalapa  river  to 
within  about  seventy  miles  of  the  city.  A waggon  road 
connects  the  capital  with  Tonala,  a port  on  the  Pacific 
coast,  from  which  a short  railway  connects  with  the 
Tehuantepec  line,  and  so  with  the  general  railway  system. 
But  apart  from  this,  the  principal  means  of  communica- 
tion are  the  navigable  streams  and  the  waggon  roads. 

Agriculture  is  the  principal  industry  of  this  state,  with 
timber-cutting,  cattle-raising,  and  the  production  of  salt 
from  the  deposits  on  the  coast.  In  their  relative  order  of 
importance  are  sugar-cane,  coffee,  chocolate,  tobacco, 
indigo,  whilst  fibre,  rubber,  cereals,  alcohol,  cattle,  and 
other  products,  as  cedar,  mahogany,  &c.,  are  also 
exported  in  increasing  value.  There  is,  however,  much 
room  for  the  improvement  and  development  of  agricul- 
ture in  this  prolific  region.  The  famous  ruins  of  Palenque 
render  this  state  of  great  interest  archaeologically. 


CHAPTER  XV 


NATURAL  RESOURCES,  AGRICULTURE,  GENERAL  CONDITIONS 

(continued) 

Central  and  Atlantic  States — Chihuahua  and  the  Rio  Grande — Mining, 
forests,  railways — Coahuila  and  its  resources — Nuevo  Leon  and  its 
conditions — Iron,  coal,  railways,  textile  industries — Durango  and  its 
great  plains  and  mountain  peaks — Aguascalientes — Zacatecas  and  its 
mineral  wealth — San  Luis  Potosi  and  its  industries — Guanajuato, 
Queretaro  and  Hidalgo,  and  their  diversified  resources — Mexico  and 
its  mountains  and  plains — Tlaxcala — Morelos  and  its  sugar-cane 
industry — The  rich  State  of  Puebla — Tamaulipas,  a littoral  state — 
The  historic  State  of  Vera  Cruz,  its  resources,  towns,  and  harbour — 
Campeche  and  the  peninsula  of  Yucatan. 

The  states  described  in  this  chapter  are  those  which 
mainly  occupy  : (a)  The  mesa  central,  or  great  plateau, 
and  (b)  the  states  which  border  upon  the  coast  of  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  the  Caribbean  Sea,  forming  the 
eastern  littoral  of  Mexico,  and  consequently  those  nearest 
to  European  influence.  Taking  first  the  plateau  states, 
and  beginning  at  the  north,  the  frontier  with  the  United 
States,  we  have  the  State  of  Chihuahua.  The  area  of 
territory  embodied  in  this  state,  the  largest  in  the 
Republic,  is  greater  than  that  of  Great  Britain,  having 
an  area  of  some  90,000  square  miles,  with  a population 
of  about  330,000.  The  northern  boundary  of  this  state 
is  the  Rio  Grande  del  Norte,  the  dividing  line  between 
it  and  Texas,  and  it  occupies  much  of  the  northern 
portion  of  the  great  plateau,  and  part  of  the  Western 
Sierra  Madre,  whose  summits  form  its  boundary.  The 
elevation  above  sea-level  of  the  plateau  portion  slopes  from 
6,000  to  3,500  feet,  and  the  summits  of  the  Sierra  reach 

308 


NATURAL  RESOURCES 


309 


an  altitude  in  some  cases  of  10,000  feet.  The  state 
contains  vast  tracts  of  waterless  and  timberless  regions, 
forming  arid  and  monotonous  plains,  and  in  some  cases 
appalling  deserts,  but  is  nevertheless  rich  elsewhere 
in  agricultural,  forest,  and  grazing  resources.  Mining, 
however,  is  its  principal  industry.  Manufacturing  has 
developed  well  of  late  years,  and  factories  for  iron  and 
steel,  clothes,  furniture,  food-products,  &c.,  are  in  active 
operation.  In  some  of  the  mountain  regions  abundant 
water-power  exists,  and  fine  belts  of  timber.  Agriculture 
is  carried  on  both  with  and  without  irrigation,  and  a 
wide  range  of  sub-tropical  and  temperate-grown  food- 
stuffs and  fruits  are  produced.  Cattle-raising  on  the 
extensive  natural  pastures  of  the  uplands  is  a prominent 
and  increasing  industry.  The  state  is  traversed  from 
north  to  south  by  the  Mexican  Central  Railway,  and  El 
Paso,  on  the  frontier,  is  one  of  the  main  points  of  entry 
to  the  Republic  from  the  United  States.  There  are  other 
shorter  lines  built  or  under  construction,  but  further 
railways  are  required  for  adequate  development. 

The  rapid  increase  of  mining  enterprise  in  this  state 
has  brought  it  into  first  place  in  the  Republic.  Important 
gold-mining  establishments  are  in  operation,  and  copper 
is  being  actively  produced.  The  historic  Santa  Eulalia 
mine,  elsewhere  mentioned,  has  been  again  made  to 
produce,  and  is  a source  of  great  wealth  at  present  to 
its  owners.  Other  details  of  the  mines  of  this  state  are 
given  in  the  chapter  devoted  to  mining. 

The  capital  of  the  state  is  the  beautiful  city  of  Chi- 
huahua, whose  fine  public  buildings,  institutions,  and 
considerable  commercial  movement  attest  the  prosperity 
of  this  growing  centre  of  Mexican  civilisation.  A fuller 
description  of  this  capital  is  given  in  another  chapter. 

Coahuila,  with  an  area  of  65,000  square  miles,  and  a 
population  of  300,000  inhabitants,  is  also  bounded  on 
the  north  by  the  Rio  Grande  and  Texas.  The  state  con- 
sists principally  of  flat  plains  intersected  by  small  moun- 
tain ranges.  The  rainfall  is  generally  scarce,  although 
abundant  at  certain  seasons  in  the  more  mountainous 


310 


MEXICO 


regions,  whilst  the  climate  is  very  variable,  being  hot 
and  unhealthy  in  places,  although  in  general  terms  it 
cannot  be  pronounced  bad.  The  great  plateau  of  Mexico, 
of  which  it  forms  part,  comes  down  to  a low  elevation 
towards  the  Rio  Grande,  whilst  the  principal  mountain 
ranges  are  offshoots  of  the  Eastern  Sierra  Madre.  Agri- 
culture is  carried  on  mainly  under  irrigation  from  canals 
fed  from  the  torrential  streams  which  occur  sparsely  in 
the  state,  and  great  quantities  of  cotton  are  grown.  The 
cotton  belt  and  industry  are  most  important,  and  the 
wines  of  Parras  are  famous  in  the  country.  Coahuila, 
in  common  with  others  of  its  neighbouring  states, 
possesses  some  peculiar  topographical  conditions — 
portions  of  it  consisting  of  plains  or  valleys  with  no 
hydrographic  outlet,  as  shown  in  the  chapter  dealing 
with  the  orography  of  the  Republic.  These  in  some 
cases  form  fertile  valleys,  and,  in  others,  sun-beat  deserts, 
uncultivated  and  uninhabited. 

Notwithstanding  its  partly  sterile  nature  this  state  is  a 
very  prosperous  commercial  section  of  the  country,  due 
largely  to  its  excellent  railway  system,  five  different  lines 
of  which  traverse  it.  These  are  the  Mexican  Central, 
the  International,  the  Northern,  the  National,  and  other 
lesser  systems.  In  addition  there  are  some  fair  roads, 
upon  which  the  traveller  may  journey  by  diligencia  or  on 
horseback.  The  capital,  Saltillo,  with  a population  of 
about  25,000,  is  a pretty  and  interesting  old  Spanish 
town,  and  a valuable  commercial  centre.  Manufacturing 
industries  have  increased  rapidly  of  late  years  in  this 
state,  especially  those  producing  textile  fabrics  from  the 
native  cotton.  Metal  and  coal  mining  are  both  develop- 
ing in  this  region  ; and  new  towns,  of  which  Torreon  is 
an  example,  are  springing  up.  The  state  contains  one 
of  the  principal  points  of  entry  to  the  Republic  from 
the  United  States — Eagle  Pass,  or  Ciudad  Porfirio  Diaz, 
on  the  International  Railway,  whilst  Laredo,  on  the 
National,  is  near  its  border. 

Nuevo  Leon,  which  also  borders  upon  the  Rio  Grande 
and  Texas,  is  much  smaller  than  its  neighbouring  states — 


GENERAL  VIEW  OF  THE  CITY  OF  MONTERREY,  STATE  OF  NUEVO  LEON,  UPON  THE  GREAT 

PLATEAU. 

[To  face  p.  311. 


NATURAL  RESOURCES 


311 


23,75°  square  miles  in  area — but  has  a larger  population 
of  some  350,000  inhabitants.  The  state  is  traversed  by 
the  Eastern  Sierra  Madre,  the  highest  summits  of  which 
are  snow-covered.  The  region  consists  topographically 
of  small  plains  and  well-watered,  fertile  valleys.  Its 
orography  gives  rise  to  the  presence  of  numerous 
rivers  and  streams,  all  of  which  are  upon  the  Atlantic 
watershed.  These  productive  valleys,  copious  streams, 
and  the  picturesque  scenery  of  the  varied  landscape, 
afford  striking  contrast  with  the  appalling  deserts  which 
the  neighbouring  States  of  Coahuila  and  Chihuahua 
contain,  and  which  are  characteristic  of  the  great  plateau 
of  Anahuac  in  the  north.  Cold  and  bracing  in  the 
mountains,  the  climate  is  temperate  upon  the  high  plains, 
and  very  hot  in  the  low  valleys  ; whilst  the  rainfall  is 
variable. 

The  state  is  well  served  with  railways,  which  largely 
account  for  its  prosperity.  The  great  trunk  lines  which 
traverse  it  unite  it  with  the  railway  system  of  the  United 
States,  the  ports  of  the  coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
and  with  the  capital  of  the  Republic.  These  main  lines 
are,  respectively,  the  International,  the  Mexican  Central, 
the  National,  and  the  Monterrey  and  Gulf.  There  are  in 
addition  various  smaller  systems. 

The  capital  city  of  the  state,  Monterrey,  is  the  fourth 
in  point  of  commercial  importance  and  population  in  the 
Republic.  It  contains  handsome  buildings  and  numerous 
hotels,  and  its  proximity  to  the  United  States  has  had  a 
considerable  influence  on  its  development. 

Among  the  state’s  main  resources  are  its  mineral 
deposits,  in  which  coal  and  iron  are  important.  The 
smelters  and  steel  works  at  Monterrey,  elsewhere 
mentioned  in  the  chapter  on  mining,  are  among  the  most 
important  in  the  country.  Agriculture  comes  second  ; the 
extensive  forests  afford  a remarkable  variety  of  timber — 
pine,  ebony,  walnut,  cedar,  and  others ; whilst  cattle- 
raising is  a growing  industry.  And  the  textile  industry 
is  well  represented,  as  is  brewing  and  distilling.  In 
brief,  the  state  is  an  example  of  a prosperous  and 


312 


MEXICO 


growing  Mexican  community,  largely  supplying  its  own 
wants  in  raw  material  and  manufactured  articles. 

Durango  lies  upon  the  great  plateau,  but  an  imposing 
Cordillera — the  Western  Sierra  Madre — bounds  and 
crosses  it  on  the  west,  shutting  off  the  State  of  Sinaloa 
and  the  Pacific  Ocean.  North  and  east  great  barren 
sun-beat  plains  stretch  their  verdureless  wastes,  inter- 
sected by  ranges  of  sterile  hills,  both  extending  into  the 
neighbouring  States  of  Chihuahua  and  Coahuila.  Here 
in  former  times  the  savage  Indians  roamed.  But  before 
entering  upon  these  plains  we  have  traversed  the  fertile 
country  upon  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Western  Sierra, 
watered  by  the  various  rivers  which  descend  therefrom — 
pleasing  landscape  and  fertile  soil. 

The  area  of  the  state  is  43,750  square  miles,  and  its 
population  380,000.  The  city  of  Durango,  one  of  the 
foremost  of  the  fine  Spanish-built  cities  of  the  Mexican 
tableland,  has  a population  of  somewhat  more  than 
30,000  inhabitants.  It  stands  upon  a broad  though  barren 
plain  at  the  elevation  of  6,350  feet  above  sea-level,  and  its 
climate  is  subject  to  abrupt  changes  of  heat  and  cold. 

The  culminating  peaks  of  the  mountain  ranges  of 
Durango  are  in  some  cases  singular  and  beautiful. 
Among  these  may  be  cited  the  splendid  granite  uplift  of 
legendary  Teyra,1  which  rises  to  an  elevation  of  9,240  feet 
above  sea-level.  Its  colossal  crest  towers  upwards  from 
the  tableland,  riveting  the  attention  of  the  traveller  from 
all  points  of  the  compass  by  its  majesty.  From  this  one 
gets  a magnificent  view  over  a vast  expanse  of  country. 
It  does  not,  however,  reach  the  perpetual  snow-line, 
although  this  is  passed  by  Tarahumara  of  the  Sierra 
Madre.  This  remarkable  peak  shows  the  flora  of  three 
zones — the  hot,  with  bananas  and  other  fruits  growing  at 
the  base  of  the  mountain  ; the  temperate,  where  pines 
and  other  flora  of  this  zone  flourish  ; and  the  simple 
cryptogamous  plant  life  of  an  arctic  temperature,  cooled 
by  the  almost  perpetual  snow  above  it  upon  the  mountain 
summit. 


1 Visited  by  the  Author. 


NATURAL  RESOURCES 


313 


The  plains  of  Durango,  in  common  with  some  of 
those  of  its  native  states,  present  the  curious  physical 
structure  described  in  another  chapter — of  having  no 
hydrographic  outlet.  The  rivers  which  flow  eastwardly 
from  the  Sierra,  form  lakes  whose  only  means  of 
exhaustion  is  by  evaporation.  Of  this  nature  is 
the  great  arid  tract  known  as  the  Bolson  of 
Mapimi.  The  Mexican  Nile,  the  River  Nazas,  the 
principal  stream  of  the  state  traverses  this,  and 
affords  the  means  of  irrigation  to  the  numerous  cotton 
plantations  of  the  region.  These,  which  constitute  an 
important  industry,  are  described  in  the  chapter  on 
agriculture. 

The  climate  varies  much  according  to  the  topography 
of  the  region,  being  temperate  or  hot  according  to  the 
elevation.  In  addition  to  the  cotton  various  agricultural 
products  are  raised,  whilst  the  mountain  uplands  yield 
pine,  oak,  cedar,  ash,  and  other  classes  of  timber.  The 
fauna  includes  leopards,  bears,  coyotes,  peccaries,  deer, 
eagles,  cranes,  pheasants,  &c. 

The  mining  industry  in  Durango  is  important.  Gold 
and  silver  are  freely  found  and  worked.  The  great  hill  of 
iron  has  been  described  elsewhere  in  these  pages.  Copper 
is  abundant;  tin,  cinnabar,  sulphur,  and  coal  exist.  The 
numerous  mining  districts  in  this  state  have  produced 
much  wealth  in  the  past,  and  mines  and  reduction 
works  are  encountered  strewn  over  the  mountain 
regions.  The  great  Penoles1  mining  and  smelting 
enterprise  at  Mapimi  is  one  of  the  most  important  in 
the  country.  The  historic  Avino  silver  mines  are  worked 
by  British  capital.  Other  numerous  modern  mining 
establishments  are  in  operation,  which  have  been 
brought  to  much  perfection  by  foreign  capital  and  skill. 

Railways  are  fairly  well  developed  in  this  state  ; the 
International  and  the  Central  being  those  which 
traverse  it. 

Zacatecas  owes  its  fame  and  prosperity  in  the  first 
instance  to  its  mines,  which  have  been  worked  from  the 
1 Visited  by  the  Author. 


314 


MEXICO 


year  1546  to  the  present  day.  The  state  is  situated  on 
the  great  plateau  in  the  centre  of  the  Republic,  at  an 
average  elevation  above  sea- level  of  7,700  feet,  but 
embodying  a diversified  topographical  character  and 
climate.  Cattle,  cereals,  and  agricultural  products 
generally,  are  raised  to  a certain  extent.  With  an  area 
of  25,300  square  miles  it  has  a population  of  about 
500,000.  The  famous  capital  city  of  Zacatecas,  as  de- 
scribed elsewhere,  is  served  by  the  Mexican  Central 
Railway,  which  traverses  the  state ; as  does  also  the 
National.  A large  number  of  mines  are  being  worked 
in  this  state,  and  new  capital  is  rapidly  coming  in. 
Foremost  among  British  enterprises  are  the  important 
mines  and  smelting  works  of  the  Mazapil  Copper  Com- 
pany, at  Concepcion  del  Oro.  The  field  of  minerals  is  a 
vast  one,  and  offers  inducement  to  foreign  capital.  Gold, 
silver,  copper,  lead,  and  quicksilver  are  all  produced, 
bm  more  capital  is  required.  Remarkable  as  it  may 
seem,  the  high  region  which  composes  this  state  pro- 
duces rubber — the  guayule,  a plant  which  grows  wild  in 
profusion  in  various  parts  of  the  region,  and  which  is  in 
much  demand. 

The  little  state  of  Aguascalientes  lies  to  the  south  of 
the  above  region,  with  an  area  of  somewhat  less  than 
3,000  square  miles  and  a population  of  105,000.  Its 
principal  source  of  life  is  agricultural,  but  the  mineral 
industry  is  important.  The  capital  city  stands  at  an 
elevation  above  sea-level  of  6,100  feet,  and  the  hot- 
springs  of  the  region  give  rise  to  the  name  of  the  state 
and  city ; which  may  be  described  as  healthy  and 
attractive.  It  is  traversed  by  the  Mexican  Central 
Railway. 

San  Luis  Potosi  is  a state  of  much  promise  in  minerals 
and  agriculture,  but  has  been  kept  backward  until 
recently  from  want  of  foreign  capital  to  exploit  its 
natural  resources.  In  former  times  it  was  the  third 
producer  of  bullion  of  the  Mexican  states  for  Spain, 
and  it  shows  signs  of  regaining  its  former  prestige.  The 
valleys  provide  numerous  agricultural  products ; the 


NATURAL  RESOURCES 


315 


mountains  contain,  in  certain  places,  timber,  and  the  sterile 
uplands  maguey.  To  the  east  rises  the  Mesa  range  of 
the  Eastern  Sierra  Madre,  and  the  state  generally  occu- 
pies the  most  elevated  part  of  the  great  plateau,  giving 
rise  to  the  coldest  climate  in  the  country.  The  area  is 
25,400  square  miles,  and  of  its  population  of  about 
580,000  souls  more  than  60,000  form  the  inhabi- 
tants of  the  handsome  capital — San  Luis  Potosi.  This 
city  is  connected  with  the  Port  of  Tampico  on  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico,  by  the  Mexican  Central  Railway,  which 
descends  to  the  coast  by  an  exceedingly  picturesque  and 
interesting  route.  The  Mexican  National  Railway  also 
traverses  the  state,  connecting  it  with  the  City  of  Mexico. 
The  important  ore  smelting  works  of  the  Metalurgica 
Mexicana  Company  are  situated  here,  and  have  proved  a 
stimulus  to  the  works  of  the  great  mineral  resources  of 
the  state.  The  famous  Catorce  mining  district  is  situated 
in  this  state,  and  some  well-equipped  modern  installations 
exist  here.  The  rich  Huasteca  district,  and  other  regions, 
form  an  alluring  field  for  capitalists. 

Guanajuato,  Queretaro,  and  Hidalgo  form  a group  of 
smaller  states  which  have  held  a prominent  place  in  the 
earlier  history  of  Mexico,  due  principally  to  the  extra- 
ordinary production  of  silver  and  gold  from  their  mines, 
which  has  made  the  names  of  these  famous  the  world 
over.  These  have  been  touched  upon  in  the  chapters 
devoted  to  mining,  and  the  capital  cities  spoken  of  else- 
where. Most  of  the  important  mines  are  again  producing 
mainly  under  modern  methods,  and  the  value  of  the 
output  for  the  State  of  Guanajuato  last  year  is  calcu- 
lated as  fourteen  million  dollars. 

The  diversified  character  of  the  topography  and  con- 
sequently of  the  climate  of  this  region,  forming  the 
southern  part  of  the  great  plateau,  gives  rise  to  much 
variety  of  nature’s  resources  and  agricultural  products, 
from  sugar-cane  to  cereals,  and  indeed  agriculture  in 
some  cases  is  the  staple  industry.  Numerous  streams 
permit  the  irrigation  of  the  fertile  valleys  which  abound 
in  this  part  of  Mexico.  In  some  cases  we  may  journey 


316 


MEXICO 


in  a few  hours  from  the  tropical  lowlands  to  the  regions 
of  pine  and  oak,  and  the  cold  and  cloudy  climate  of  the 
high  mining  districts.  Great  plains  and  plantations  of 
maguey  exist  upon  the  tableland  for  the  making  of 
pulque,  Hidalgo  alone  having  129  haciendas  devoted  to 
this  industry.  In  some  portions  of  these  states  the 
scenery  is  wild  and  picturesque  in  the  extreme,  varying 
from  the  soft  and  undulating  to  the  stupendous.  The 
rivers  generally  belong  to  the  Atlantic  watershed,  flowing 
through  the  Eastern  Sierra  Madre  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
debouching  at  Tampico  as  the  great  Panuco  river. 

The  State  of  Guanajuato,  with  an  area  of  about  11,000 
square  miles,  supports  one  of  the  largest  of  populations 
of  any  state,  reaching  to  1,065,000  inhabitants,  and  this 
is  increasing,  due  to  the  growing  industries  of  the  region. 
Queretaro,  with  an  area  and  population  of  4,500  square 
miles  and  235,000  inhabitants,  is  one  of  the  smallest  of 
the  states.  Its  capital  city,  of  the  same  name,  is  of  much 
interest  historically,  for  here  Maximilian  fell.  Some 
important  industries  are  carried  on,  among  them  being 
the  largest  textile  factory  in  the  Republic,  the  great 
“Hercules"  mills.  The  famous  “Doctor"  mine,  vast 
producer  in  past  history,  is  one  of  the  remarkable  features 
of  this  state,  whilst  in  the  adjoining  state  of  Hidalgo  are 
the  great  mines  and  ore-treating  haciendas  near  the 
capital  city,  Pachuca.  Real  del  Monte  with  its  remark- 
able metallurgical  achievements  is  a byeword  in  the 
annals  of  silver.  Cold  and  cloudy,  these  high  regions — 
Pachuca  is  8,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea — are  in 
marked  contrast  to  the  warm  valleys  which,  below  the 
belt  of  oak  and  pines  upon  the  mountain  slopes,  are 
reached  in  our  downward  journey.  The  area  of  this 
very  diversified  state  is  85,900  square  miles,  and  its  popu- 
lation some  605,000  souls.  The  Mexican  Central  and 
National  Railways  serve  these  three  states. 

The  State  of  Mexico  comprises  a rich  and  interesting 
region.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  capital,  the  famous  City  of 
Mexico.  With  the  little  adjoining  State  of  Tlaxcala  it  was 
the  home  of  the  Aztec  and  other  republics  or  oligarchies 


NATURAL  RESOURCES 


317 


of  prehispanic  days.  Here  is  the  classic  lake  of  Texcoco, 
and  on  the  south  of  the  valley  the  famous  peaks  which 
rise  beyond  the  perpetual  snow-line — Popocatepetl,  Ix- 
taccihuatl,  and  the  Nevado  of  Toluca — rear  their  gleaming 
crests.  In  this  region  Nature  has  been  profuse  with  her 
resources — a rich  and  varied  flora  and  astonishing  wealth 
of  gold  and  silver.  Here  the  mines  of  El  Oro  give  up  a 
stream  of  gold  to  foreign  pockets — principally  British — 
the  result  of  Anglo-Saxon  enterprise  of  recent  years. 

The  state  is  mountainous,  with  the  great  culminating 
peaks  before  mentioned  ; but  extensive  plains  and  fertile 
valleys  occupy  much  of  its  area,  with  grassy  uplands  in 
the  higher  regions.  The  Lerma  river  is  the  chief  water- 
course, born  near  the  snows  of  Toluca,  and  after  long 
winding  over  several  states  it  traverses  the  Western  Sierra 
and  falls  into  the  Pacific  Ocean.  The  cold  plains  and 
temperate  zone  produce  abundant  supplies  of  maguey 
and  cereals  ; oak  and  pine  and  cedar  grow  freely  in 
the  mountain  timber  belts,  whilst  the  list  of  agricultural 
products  and  fruits,  from  sugar-cane  and  tobacco 
upwards,  almost  exhausts  the  flora  of  the  country. 
Water-power  is  a valuable  asset  of  the  state,  the 
numerous  streams  furnishing  power  for  the  plant  of 
numerous  manufactories — woollen,  cotton,  electric  light, 
flour  mills,  and  others.  The  area  of  the  state  is  8,950 
square  miles,  with  a population  of  nearly  a million 
inhabitants.  The  fine  haciendas  which  dot  the  state, 
and  the  important  industries  and  cities,  form  a rich 
and  important  centre  of  Mexican  civilisation.  All  the 
main  lines  of  railway  connect  this  state  with  the  rest 
of  the  Republic. 

The  little  State  of  Tlaxcala,  which  bounds  that  of 
Mexico  on  the  east,  has  an  area  of  1,700  square  miles 
and  population  of  173,000 — the  smallest  of  the  political 
divisions  of  the  Republic.  Above  the  clay  and  sand 
plains  of  this  state  rises  the  beautiful  Malinche  peak 
to  a height  of  14,720  feet  above  sea-level,  crowned 
generally  with  snow,  which  fancy  has  pictured  in  the 
form  of  a woman.  The  principal  agricultural  products 


318 


MEXICO 


are  maguey  and  cereals,  from  which  a large  revenue  is 
derived  by  the  haciendas  devoted  to  the  industry.  The 
city  of  Tlaxcala  was  the  site  of  memorable  scenes  of 
the  conquest  of  Mexico,  and  its  brave  inhabitants  were 
the  fierce  foes  first,  and  the  faithful  allies  afterwards, 
of  Cortes  and  his  Spaniards,  as  has  been  described  in 
the  historical  portion  of  these  pages.  The  ancient 
ramparts,  built  by  the  Tlaxcalans,  existed  up  to  the 
seventeenth  century. 

Morelos  is  a small  state  lying  south  of  Mexico,  with 
an  area  somewhat  less  than  2,000  square  miles  and  a 
population  of  160,000.  This  state  might  almost  be 
termed  a vast  sugar-cane  plantation,  as  the  greater  part 
of  its  cultivable  territory  is  given  over  to  this  branch 
of  agriculture — grown  under  irrigation  principally  from 
the  rivers  which  flow  from  the  perpetual  snow-caps  of 
Popocatepetl  and  Ixtaccihuatl.  Correspondingly,  the 
principal  industry  is  that  of  sugar  and  rum-making,  for 
which  industry  there  exist  numerous  haciendas,  equipped 
in  most  cases  with  modern  machinery.  The  historical 
and  archaeological  associations  and  remains  of  the  state 
are  of  much  interest.  Cuernavaca,  the  picturesque 
capital,  which  is  the  centre  of  these,  is  much  of  a 
favourite  health  resort  since  it  became  connected  by 
railway  with  the  City  of  Mexico.  The  Franciscan 
church  carries  us  back  to  1539,  and  the  palace  of 
Cortes  and  the  gardens  of  Maximilian  bring  into 
recollection  episodes  of  the  history  of  this  romantic 
region  of  the  Pacific  slope.  The  climate  invites  to 
dalliance,  and  the  varied  landscape — canyon,  forest,  and 
stream — open  out  in  their  pleasurable  variety  as  we  make 
our  way  westward.  The  small,  quaint,  Spanish-built 
towns  with  their  Indian  names,  such  as  Tetecala,1 
Tequezquitengo,  and  others,  seem  to  carry  us  back  to 
the  Middle  Ages.  This  latter  village  was  inundated  and 
lost  from  the  waters  employed  in  the  irrigation  of  the 
valleys.  The  various  streams  which  cross  the  state  have 
their  outlet  to  the  great  Balsas  river,  which  drains  the 

1 Visited  by  the  Author. 


;■*?>  . 


TYPICAL  SIDE  STREET  IN  MEXICAN  VILLAGE  : THE  TOWN  OF  AMECA  AND  CLOUD-EFFECT  ON  POPOCATEPETL 


NATURAL  RESOURCES 


319 


eastern  slope  of  the  Sierra  Madre,  falling  thence  into 
the  Pacific  Ocean.  The  Mexican  Central  and  the  Inter- 
oceanic  Railways  connect  the  chief  towns  of  Morelos 
with  the  City  of  Mexico,  traversing  the  interesting  and 
rugged  routes  of  this  region. 

Puebla  is  one  of  the  most  important  of  the  Mexican 
states — both  in  natural  resources  and  in  its  general 
flourishing  condition.  It  occupies  the  region  south  of 
the  great  tableland,  extending  beyond  this,  however, 
both  to  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  watersheds,  its  central 
part  forming  the  divortia  aquarum  of  the  continent  in 
this  portion,  its  rivers  on  the  west  running  to  the  Pacific 
Ocean  and  those  on  the  east  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  through 
the  State  of  Vera  Cruz.  In  the  northern  part  of  this 
region  the  mountains  form  a scattered  group,  unlike  the 
Cordilleras  of  the  Sierra  Madre  of  other  parts  of  Mexico. 
The  topography  and  scenery  are  rugged  and  picturesque. 
The  northern  mountains  include  the  Sierra  Nevada, 
which  form  the  boundary  of  the  valley  of  Mexico  and 
the  great  plateau.  Here  rise  the  beautiful  snow-capped 
peaks  which  are  so  prominent  a feature  of  this  part  of 
Mexico — Popocatepetl  (17,300  feet),  Ixtaccihuatl  (15,700 
feet),  Malintzin  (13,462  feet),  and  others,  on  the  boundary 
with  the  States  of  Puebla  and  Mexico.  Orizaba  (18,250 
feet)  and  the  Cofre  de  Perote  (13,400  feet),  on  the  border 
of  the  State  of  Vera  Cruz,  descend  to  high-spreading 
tablelands,  watered  only  by  the  snows  of  these  mountains, 
as  they  are  riverless.  The  beautiful  valley  wherein  the 
capital  city  of  Puebla  is  situated,  some  short  distance 
to  the  east  of  Popocatepetl  and  its  sister  peak,  is,  how- 
ever, traversed  by  the  remarkable  river  Atoyac  which, 
rising  beyond  the  borders  of  the  state,  forms  the  head- 
waters of  the  great  Balsas  river,  debouching,  after  a 
trajectory  of  more  than  four  hundred  miles,  into  the 
Pacific. 

The  area  of  this  state  is  12,200  square  miles,  sustain- 
ing more  than  a million  inhabitants.  Agriculture,  and 
industries  and  manufacture  depending  thereon  are  the 
sources  of  wealth  and  property  ; mining  occupies  a 


320 


MEXICO 


relatively  small  place,  although  minerals  abound,  and 
onyx  and  coal  are  famous  among  them.  The  valley 
of  Puebla  draws  its  varied  sources  of  life  largely  from 
the  Atoyac  river,  whose  hydrographic  basin  forms  a 
fertile  region  probably  superior  to  any  in  the  Republic. 
Level  tracts  of  land  and  undulating  valleys  are  irrigated 
freely  from  this  river,  giving  huge  crops  of  cereals,  and 
numerous  mills  producing  textile  fabrics  are  actuated  by 
the  water-power  it  affords.  The  slopes  of  the  mountains 
to  the  north  are  covered  with  forests  whose  stores  of 
timber  are  a little-exploited  source  of  wealth  at  present. 
The  southerly  region  forms  a tropical  zone  where  the 
products  corresponding  to  its  climate  abound — as  cotton, 
coffee,  sugar-cane,  and  others.  Here  the  state  extends  to 
the  borders  of  Guerrero  and  Oaxaca. 

The  city  of  Puebla  is  the  second  in  the  Republic  and 
contains  nearly  95,000  inhabitants.  It  is  an  important 
seat  of  Mexican  civilisation,  of  which  the  Republic  is 
justly  proud  and,  indeed,  its  state  of  prosperity  and 
consequent  advanced  civilisation  are  noteworthy.  The 
productions  of  the  numerous  industries  and  factories  in 
the  district  are  exported  to  all  the  main  centres  of 
the  Republic,  especially  the  textile  fabrics,  and  also  to 
Central  and  South  American  countries.  The  central 
portion  of  the  state  is  traversed  by  several  main  lines 
of  railway,  as  the  International  and  the  Mexico  and 
Vera  Cruz,  whilst  the  Mexican  Southern  unites  it  with 
Oaxaca  and  the  Tehuantepec  Railway.  The  archaeo- 
logical remains  of  Cholula — the  prehistoric  ruins  else- 
where described — lend  much  interest  to  the  diversified 
and  beautiful  State  of  Puebla. 

We  have  now  to  consider  the  Atlantic,  or  Mexican 
Gulf  littoral  States. 

Tamaulipas  is  one  of  the  frontier  states  bordering  upon 
the  United  States  ; its  northern  frontier  adjoining  Texas, 
from  which  it  is  divided  by  the  Rio  Grande  or  Bravo. 
On  its  eastern  side  it  is  washed  by  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
its  littoral  extending  along  the  Gulf  for  more  than  260 


NATURAL  RESOURCES 


321 


miles — from  the  estuary  of  the  Rio  Grande  or  Bravo,  to 
that  of  the  Panuco  river  at  Tampico.  Topographically, 
the  state  consists  of  the  coast  plains,  occupying  about 
two-thirds  of  its  area,  and  the  mountainous  or  hilly 
region  of  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Eastern  Sierra  Madre, 
of  the  remainder.  The  area  is  29,340  square  miles,  and 
the  population  190,000.  The  rivers  of  the  state  are 
numerous,  notably  the  Conchas,  the  Soto  la  Marina,  and 
the  Tamesi,  all  falling  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  ; and  great 
lagoons — as  the  Laguna  Madre,  125  miles  long — border 
upon  the  coast,  separated  from  the  sea,  in  some  places 
only  by  a ridge  of  narrow  sand-dunes.  The  Laguna 
Madre  has  become  dried  up,  however,  due  to  the  silting 
up  of  its  channels. 

The  climate  varies  much,  the  coast  being  hot  and  in 
places  unhealthy,  subject  to  the  diseases  peculiar  to  those 
regions,  although  it  has  been  found  that  drainage  and 
sanitary  measures  have  worked  a remarkable  change  at 
the  formerly  unhealthy  port  of  Tampico.  The  moun- 
tainous regions  of  the  Sierra  Madre  bound  the  state 
on  the  west,  with  a cool  climate  and  temperate  uplands, 
and  the  climate  as  a whole  is  considered  superior  to  that 
of  Coahuila. 

The  development  of  this  state  has  not  kept  pace  with 
that  of  its  neighbours,  due  to  lack  of  railways,  capital, 
and  labour.  But  it  is  a region  of  rich  and  varied  natural 
resources,  whether  in  minerals  or  agriculture.  The 
beautiful  valleys  of  the  temperate  region  are  capable 
of  a greatly  extended  agricultural  development,  and 
valuable  forests  extend  over  both  mountains  and  plain- 
land.  The  vegetation  of  the  region  is  very  varied.  All 
the  tropical  and  some  of  the  temperate  zone  fruits  are 
raised,  as  well  as  corn,  coffee,  and  chocolate,  whilst  india- 
rubber  is  a product  of  the  state.  Of  timber  a great 
variety  exists,  including  oak,  cedar,  mahogany,  pine, 
beech,  ebony,  &c.  An  important  industry  is  the  growing  of 
fibre-producing  plants,  especially  the  henequen  and  ixtle, 
and  there  are  many  haciendas  engaged  in  this  remunera- 
tive branch  of  agriculture.  Active  irrigation  work  is 

22 


322 


MEXICO 


required  in  this  state,  from  the  numerous  streams  which 
cross  it,  as  agriculture  must  be  largely  dependent  upon 
this,  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  this  will  be  accomplished 
as  more  attention  is  drawn  to  the  resources  of  the  region 
and  capital  attracted  thereto.  Mining  is  carried  on  to 
some  extent,  especially  in  copper,  whilst  the  petroleum 
and  asphalt  deposits  are  a source  of  wealth  to  their 
owners.  But,  so  far,  mining  is  little  developed  and, 
although  the  possibilities  for  the  production  of  minerals 
are  generally  little  known,  there  is  no  doubt  that  they  are 
extensive.  The  capital  of  the  state  is  Victoria,  with  a 
population  of  some  10,000  inhabitants.  It  is  connected 
with  the  seaport  of  Tampico,  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico — the 
main  seaport  of  the  state  and,  indeed,  the  second  in 
importance  upon  the  coast — by  the  Monterrey  and 
Mexican  Gulf  Railway.  Another  of  the  principal  gate- 
ways of  the  Republic  exists  in  this  state — that  of  the 
frontier  town  of  Laredo,  at  which  point  the  Mexican 
National  Railway  crosses  the  Rio  Grande  into  Texas. 
With  its  little-known  regions  and  considerable  possi- 
bilities, the  State  of  Tamaulipas,  although  somewhat 
off  the  main  routes  of  travel,  is  a region  of  much 
interest.  It  offers  some  attraction  to  tourists  in  its 
sea-bathing  and  Tarpon  fishing  upon  the  coast. 

Vera  Cruz,  the  famous  and  historical  state  of  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico,  the  gateway  of  the  Conquistadores  and  the 
principal  route  of  entry  of  the  European  traveller  of 
to-day,  lies  along  the  shore  of  Mexico  for  a length  of 
435  miles.  It  extends  from  the  Panuco  river  at  Tampico, 
curving  round  the  Gulf  shore  to  the  south  and  east,  past 
the  Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec,  to  the  border  of  Chiapas 
and  Tabasco.  Its  area  is  29,000  square  miles,  and  its 
population  falls  somewhat  short  of  a million  inhabi- 
tants. 

The  topography  of  the  state  is  that  remarkable  one 
typical  of  the  physical  structure  of  Mexico — of  hot  coast 
plains,  temperate  higher  regions,  and  the  cold  uplands 
of  the  Sierra  Madre  mountains  and  the  great  tableland  of 
the  interior.  The  rugged  character  for  which  this  region 


(Far  below  in  the  valley  is  seen  the  bridge  depicted  at  p.  340.)  [To  face  p.  322. 


NATURAL  RESOURCES 


323 


is  famous  lies  beyond  the  coast  plains,  which,  except  in  a 
few  places,  are  sandy  and  undulating,  but,  as  elevation  is 
gained,  these  give  place  to  a region  of  tropical  vegetation 
so  exuberant  as  is  encountered  in  few  other  regions. 

The  state  is  well  watered,  there  being  forty  or  more 
rivers  and  streams  of  importance,  some  of  them  being 
navigable  for  a distance  of  thirty-five  miles  from  their 
mouths  for  deep-draught  ships,  others  forming  means  of 
irrigation  and  motive  power  throughout  the  region,  whilst 
numerous  lakes  and  lagoons  exist.  Among  the  navigable 
rivers  are  those  of  Coatzacoalcos,  San  Juan,  Tonto, 
Papaloapam,  Tuxpam,  Casones.  The  scenery  is  ex- 
tremely picturesque  in  places,  changing  to  the  stupendous 
as  the  mountains  are  approached.  Profound  valleys, 
covered  with  a wealth  of  tropical  vegetation,  or  crops,  are 
seen  lying  thousands  of  feet  below  the  sheer  descent  of 
the  abrupt  slopes,  up  which  the  railway  ascends  to  the 
great  plateau  of  Anahuac — views  such  as  command  the 
admiration  of  the  traveller. 

The  natural  resources  of  the  state  are  varied  and 
plentiful  to  a remarkable  degree.  Cotton,  sugar,  tobacco, 
coffee,  rubber  are  among  the  products  of  this  rich  region, 
a source  of  wealth  to  the  state,  for  these  articles  find 
ready  export,  due  to  their  superior  quality.  The  forest 
timbers  are  plentiful  and  varied — cedar,  mahogany,  pine, 
ebony,  walnut,  and  dyewoods  are  products  of  these 
immense  forests.  The  export  of  cattle,  both  to  other 
states  and  abroad,  is  important.  Manufactories  for 
textile  goods,  tobacco,  sugar,  and  other  products, 
abound.  As  for  mining,  it  is  entirely  overshadowed  by 
the  great  agricultural  wealth,  and  minerals  are  scarcely 
exploited,  so  far,  although  iron,  copper,  silver,  and  gold 
exist,  whilst  the  petroleum  deposits  will  doubtless  form 
a source  of  wealth.  The  state  is  traversed  by  the 
Tehuantepec  railway,  elsewhere  described. 

The  city  of  Vera  Cruz,  although  it  does  not  occupy 
the  exact  site  of  the  landing  of  the  Conquistadores, 
is  nevertheless  of  historic  fame,  since  its  site  was  changed 
in  1599.  But  it  acquired  not  only  fame,  but  an  evil 


324 


MEXICO 


reputation  for  its  insalubrity,  the  dreaded  yellow 
fever  being  its  most  persistent  scourge.  The  scientific 
work  undertaken  of  recent  years,  however,  in  combating 
this,  and  in  the  destruction  of  mosquito  larvae,  show 
that  fever  and  malaria  can  be  eliminated  on  this  coast, 
and  to-day  the  port  and  city  are  not  unhealthy  ; and 
the  principal  scavengers  are  no  longer  the  zopilotes, 
although  these  birds  flap  their  wings  in  the  city  streets, 
in  the  faces  of  the  inhabitants.  Vera  Cruz  is  connected 
with  the  City  of  Mexico  by  the  famous  old  Mexican  Rail- 
way, whose  construction  was  begun  half  a century  ago, 
and  by  the  Interoceanic.  In  sight  of  the  traveller  as  he 
ascends  from  the  coast  is  Orizaba,  one  of  Mexico’s 
highest  snow-crowned  peaks,  visible  indeed  from  among 
the  waves  of  the  stormy  Gulf.  This  was  the  way  the 
Spaniards  came,  and  is  described  elsewhere  in  these 
pages.  The  new  port  works  of  Vera  Cruz  is  a solid 
engineering  structure,  built  at  a cost  of  ^4,000,000,  and 
renders  the  harbour  safe  for  shipping. 

Still  following  the  littoral  of  the  Mexican  Gulf,  or  rather 
the  Gulf  of  Campeche,  are  the  small  States  of  Tabasco 
and  Campeche,  forming  part  of  the  frontier  with  the 
neighbouring  Republic  of  Guatemala.  The  area  of  the 
first  is  10,100  square  miles,  and  population  of  about 
175,000  inhabitants.  This  state  possesses  two  of  the 
principal  navigable  rivers  of  Mexico,  the  Grijalva,  named 
after  the  first  European  to  set  foot  in  Mexico,  and  the 
Usumacinta,  navigable  for  180  and  77  miles,  respectively. 
The  flat  topographical  character  of  the  state  gives  rise  to 
various  lakes  and  coast  lagoons,  but  the  anchoring  grounds 
for  ships  are  not  generally  in  the  nature  of  good  harbours. 
The  climate  is  hot,  but  often  tempered  by  the  winds 
blowing  from  the  Gulf.  Malaria  is  prevalent  in  places, 
but  yellow  fever  has  diminished  or  disappeared.  The 
principal  articles  of  export  are  the  dye  woods  and  timber, 
hides,  coffee,  tobacco,  and  rubber.  Cocoa  and  sugar- 
cane are  among  its  leading  agricultural  products.  There 
is  but  one  railway  in  this  somewhat  isolated  state,  its 
means  of  communication  being  principally  by  water 


VERA  CRUZ  : SHIPPING  IN  THE  NEW  HARBOUR. 


NATURAL  RESOURCES 


325 


and  road.  The  capital,  San  Juan  Bautista,  is  situated 
upon  the  Grijalva  river. 

Campeche  has  an  area  of  18,000  square  miles  and  a 
population  of  some  87,000  inhabitants,  and  its  capital 
city  of  the  same  name,  lying  upon  the  coast,  18,000. 
This  is  also  the  principal  port,  and  it  is  united  by 
a railway  to  Merida  and  Progreso,  in  Yucatan.  The 
principal  rivers  are  navigable  in  the  rainy  season  and  for 
small  boats  generally.  The  soil  is  fertile  and  agriculture 
is  the  main  industry,  but  is  kept  backward  from  lack  of 
sufficient  labour  and  means  of  communication.  Attention 
is  being  turned  to  the  cultivation  of  henequen,  which  has 
given  favourable  results  in  the  neighbouring  state  of 
Yucatan.  Irrigation  is  necessary  for  the  crops  in  this 
region.  The  principal  products,  however,  are  the  dye- 
woods — famous  for  their  quality — and  timber,  including 
cedar  and  mahogany  ; sugar-cane,  maize,  and  rice  are 
produced,  and  the  inevitable  chicle — chewing  gum — for 
export  to  New  York,  whilst  the  numerous  fruits  of  the 
tropical  zone  are  freely  raised.  The  great  tracts  of  virgin 
forests  and  unutilised  resources  of  the  state  call  for 
foreign  capital,  and  the  Americans  are  those  who  have 
responded  principally.  Chinese  and  Korean  labour  are 
employed  to  a certain  extent,  as  well  as  Jamaica  negroes. 
Some  of  the  plantations  have  light  railway  lines,  and 
several  steam  railways  are  projected  or  under  construction. 
Shipbuilding  is  an  old-established  industry  of  this  coast, 
and  the  first  vessel  to  carry  the  Mexican  flag  to  Europe 
was  constructed,  it  is  stated,  at  Campeche. 

The  State  of  Yucatan  stretches  over  the  greater  part  of 
the  area  of  this  remarkable  peninsula,  from  which  it  takes 
its  name.  With  its  eastern  part — the  region  known  as  the 
Territory  of  Quintana  Roo — it  is  a neighbour  of  the  British 
Empire,  bordering  as  it  does  upon  British  Honduras,  or 
Belize.  To  the  south  it  adjoins  the  Republic  of  Guatemala. 
Its  area  is  35,200  square  miles,  with  a population  of  about 
300,000  inhabitants.  Similar  in  character  to  the  rest  of 
the  peninsula  this  state  consists  of  one  vast  plain,  of 
small  elevation  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  its  flat  topo- 


326 


MEXICO 


graphy  being  relieved  only  by  a low  range  of  hills  towards 
the  centre,  running  northwards  into  Campeche,  whose 
greatest  altitude  does  not  reach  3,000  feet. 

The  capital  city,  Merida,  lies  in  the  north-west  part  of 
the  state.  This  is  a vast  flat  region  of  dreary  aspect, 
unwatered  by  rivers  or  streams,  arid  and  dry,  stretching  to 
the  Bay  of  Campeche  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  great 
Terminos  lagoon.  This  desolate  region,  nevertheless, 
affords  the  main  source  of  wealth  of  the  state,  and  that 
for  which  it  has  become  famous,  the  henequen , or  Sisal 
hemp,  the  valuable  fibre-producing  plant  which  grows 
there  in  millions.  In  this  region  are  the  curious  wells, 
or  natural  ground-caves  of  water,  which  excite  the  notice 
of  the  traveller,  and  which  appear  to  be  connected  with 
underground  streams. 

Other  agricultural  products  are  sugar-cane  and  cereals, 
whilst  there  are  extensive  woods  of  valuable  timber, 
bordering  upon  Guatemala  and  British  Honduras, 
including  the  famous  dye-woods,  and  other  classes  for 
constructional  purposes.  In  the  southern  part  of  the 
state  also,  there  is  a great  zone  of  fertile  land,  crossed 
by  various  streams  and  rivers  of  small  hydrographic 
importance. 

The  coast-line  of  the  Peninsula  of  Yucatan  is  more 
than  600  miles  in  length,  extending  round  three  sides 
of  the  peninsula.  The  climate  of  the  eastern  coast  is 
rendered  torrid  by  the  heat  of  the  Gulf  Stream,  which 
sweeps  between  it  and  the  island  of  Cuba.  The  principal 
port,  Progreso,  is  an  open  roadstead  where  no  shelter  is 
obtained,  the  old  abandoned  port  of  Sisal  being  superior. 
Some  score  of  miles  off  the  north-east  coast  is  the  island 
of  Cozumel,  where  Cortes  first  landed  on  his  voyage  of 
the  Conquest.  Yucatan  contains  the  remarkable  ruins 
of  the  Maya  civilisation — a field  of  great  research.  These 
splendid  remains  of  prehispanic  architecture  are  of  the 
utmost  interest  and  beauty,  and  have  received  much 
attention  from  famous  archaeologists.  The  great  forests 
of  the  state,  extending  over  a large  area  of  territory, 
are  the  habitat  of  a varied  fauna,  including  the  panther, 


NATURAL  RESOURCES 


327 


the  tapir,  wild  boars,  boa  constrictor,  crocodile,  and 
other  ferocious  kinds,  as  well  as  deer,  and  a variety  of 
bright-plumaged  birds.  Yucatan  is  without  minerals,  its 
geological  formation  being  of  the  younger  sedimentary 
rocks. 

The  Territory  of  Quintana  Roo,  before  mentioned,  was 
separated  from  Yucatan,  due  to  its  long  possession  by  the 
Maya  Indian  tribes,  who,  however,  have  now  been  over- 
come, and  are  under  peaceful  control.  The  population 
is  only  about  3,000.  The  topographical  formation  is 
similar  to  that  of  Yucatan,  great  calcareous,  undulating 
plains  of  recent  geological  times.  The  climate  is  hot, 
tempered  at  times  by  the  sea  breezes  and  the  heavy  rains. 
There  are  no  streams,  except  the  Hondo  river,  flowing 
into  British  Honduras,  but  the  land  is  watered  to  a certain 
extent  by  the  cenotes,  as  the  rain-water  deposits  in  the 
calcareous  rock  are  termed,  which  supposedly  are 
connected  with  subterranean  streams.  This  territory  is 
the  home  of  the  descendants  of  the  Mayas,  some  of  the 
most  intelligent  of  Mexico’s  aboriginal  people  to-day,  and 
they  long  resisted,  and  until  a few  years  ago,  the  control 
of  the  Mexican  Government.  The  territory  borders  upon 
British  Honduras — Belize — and  the  supplying  of  arms  by 
British  traders  to  the  insurrectionary  people  a few  years 
ago  caused  much  trouble  to  the  Mexican  Government  and 
became  the  matter  of  diplomatic  discussion.  All  this  is 
now  duly  settled,  and  the  region  is  in  a tranquil  state. 

The  remarkable  variety  of  natural  products  and 
conditions  of  the  states  forming  the  Federal  Republic 
are  thus  shown.  Each  state  has  its  proper  machinery 
of  government,  civil  control,  and  education,  and  each  is 
working  out  its  own  destiny,  slowly,  but  surely,  in  con- 
junction with  its  neighbours  of  the  Federation. 


CHAPTER  XVI 


MEXICAN  FINANCE,  INDUSTRIES,  AND  RAILWAYS 

Financial  rise  of  Mexico — Tendencies  towards  restriction  against  foreigners 
— National  control  of  railways — Successful  financial  administration 
— Favourable  budgets — Good  trade  conditions — Foreign  liabilities — 
Character  of  exports  and  imports — Commerce  with  foreign  nations 
— Banks  and  currency — Principal  industries — Manufacturing  con- 
ditions— Labour,  water-power,  and  electric  installations — Textile  indus- 
try, tobacco,  iron  and  steel,  paper,  breweries,  etc. — Railways — The 
Mexican  Railway — The  Mexican  Central  Railway — The  National  Rail- 
road— The  Interoceanic — Government  consolidation — The  Tehuan- 
tepec railway — Port  of  Salina  Cruz — Other  railway  Rystems. 

The  rise  of  Mexico,  within  a few  years,  from  the  position 
of  a poor  and  somewhat  discredited  state  to  that  of  a 
nation  with  a regular  budget  surplus,  and  a credit  in 
European  markets  which  provides  her  with  loans  without 
other  security  than  her  good  faith,  has  been  very  generally 
acclaimed  as  the  beginning  of  a new  era  in  the  Spanish- 
American  world. 

Previous  to  the  year  1893  it  had  never  happened  in  the 
history  of  Mexico  that  the  nation's  income  exceeded  its 
expenditure.  The  country  had  always  spent  more  than 
it  earned,  and  year  after  year  its  budget  showed  heavy 
deficits,  with  an  ever-menacing  condition  resulting 
thereon.  But  that  unfortunate  state  belongs  now  to  past 
history,  and  since  the  weathering  of  the  storm  of  the 
silver  crisis  of  1894  Mexico  has  had  no  relapse,  and  the 
budget  has  shown  an  unbroken  and  increasing  balance 
in  favour  of  the  Treasury.  This  satisfactory  financial 
condition  is  partly  consequent  upon  the  general  world- 
march  of  commerce  and  the  era  of  progress  which  has 

328 


FINANCE,  INDUSTRIES,  RAILWAYS  329 


dawned  for  the  Spanish-American  world  generally.  It 
was  time  that  such  should  occur  ! But,  apart  from  these 
general  causes,  or  rather  closely  allied  thereto,  as  regards 
Mexico,  has  been  the  efficient  political  administration 
which  the  country  has  enjoyed,  and  the  able  financial 
control  of  its  resources  and  revenue.  The  name  of  the 
presiding  genius  of  the  financial  department  of  Mexico's 
administration  has  become  well  known  in  financial  circles 
connected  with  Mexico — Senor  Limautour — and  this 
chapter  would  be  incomplete  if  it  were  not  recorded. 
As  Secretary  of  Hacienda,  or  Department  of  Finance, 
this  cautious  and  able  statesman  has  been  the  instrument 
for  his  country’s  financial  progress,  for  the  stability  of 
Mexico’s  internal  government  has,  of  course,  impulsed  the 
advent  of  foreign  capital  into  the  country,  in  the  form  of 
investments  in  railway,  mining,  and  industrial  enterprise. 

Mexico’s  credit  and  prosperity  thus  satisfactorily  estab- 
lished, the  country  is  enabled  to  move  with  a certain  spirit 
of  independence  as  regards  its  foreign  financial  trans- 
actions. The  last  year  or  so  have  shown  a marked 
tendency  on  the  part  of  the  Government  to  consider  their 
position  as  regards  foreign  capitalists,  and  to  act  to  the 
end  of  obtaining  greater  benefits  for  the  nation  from 
the  exploitation  of  the  country's  resources,  which  has 
principally  been  carried  on  by  foreign  capital.  No  one 
who  views  the  matter  disinterestedly  will  see  cause  for 
complaint  in  this  attitude.  It  is  a poor  philosophy  which 
would  permit  the  mines,  fields,  and  railways  of  a country 
to  be  drained  of  their  wealth  only  for  the  benefit  of 
foreigners.  On  the  other  hand,  of  course,  railways  and 
mines  would  never  have  been  opened  up  without  foreign 
capital,  and  the  distinction  between  national  philosophy, 
and  ingratitude,  must  always  be  an  important  considera- 
tion for  Spanish-American  countries. 

Mexico,  however,  does  not  discourage  foreign  capital, 
but  only  seeks  a proper  control  of  her  natural  wealth. 
In  earlier  years  the  country  was  the  happy  hunting-ground 
of  hordes  of  concession  hunters,  speculators,  and  financial 
jugglers,  whose  main  object  was  to  get  something  for 


330 


MEXICO 


nothing,  and  sell  it  for  a round  sum  in  Europe  or 
America,  and  they  were  often  successful.  At  that  time 
Mexico  wanted  her  railways  built  at  any  cost,  but  the 
situation  has  changed  now,  although  not  in  a way 
to  discourage  reputable  investors.  This  tendency  to 
restriction  has  shown  itself  mainly  in  two  directions : 
that  of  the  recent  consolidation  of  the  railway  systems, 
whose  integrity  was  menaced  by  the  attempted  operations 
of  certain  American  trusts  and  financial  groups  ; and, 
later,  by  commercial  conditions  unfavourable  to  traffic 
returns.  This  brought  about  the  decision  of  the  State  to 
acquire  a controlling  interest  and  voice  in  the  ownership 
of  the  main  railway  lines,  and  this  has  been  carried  out 
by  means  of  the  purchase  of  stock  in  two  of  these  lines, 
the  Mexican  National  and  Mexican  Central  Railways. 
These  railways  are  two  great  arteries  of  travel,  as  else- 
where described,  connecting  the  City  of  Mexico  with  the 
United  States.  This  action  of  the  Mexican  Government, 
which  is  somewhat  of  a novel  procedure,  and  an  attempt 
to  carry  out  the  problem  of  State  co-operation  with 
private  enterprise,  is  conceded  to  be  advantageous  to 
the  interests  of  the  two  combined  companies  to  a large 
extent,  whilst  it  secures  to  the  country  the  working  of 
the  lines  in  the  interest  of  the  country,  and  eliminates  the 
possible  element  of  “rate-war”  competition.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  is  to  be  recollected  that  State  ownership 
and  working  of  railways  is  generally  disastrous,  especially 
in  North  or  South  America,  where  State  enterprise  tends 
to  become  a corrupt  political  machine.  But  it  is  far 
from  probable  that  this  condition  will  be  brought  about 
in  this  instance,  and  the  operation  will  serve  rather  as  an 
object  lesson. 

Another  restrictive  tendency  is  shown  in  the  bringing 
forward,  recently,  of  a Bill  for  the  enacting  of  a law 
that  mining  property  should  only  be  acquirable  by 
citizens  of  the  Republic,  and  this,  although  it  has  been 
shelved,  is  likely  to  be  brought  forward  in  future  years. 
Such  matters  are  inevitable  in  the  course  of  time,  and 
the  policy  of  inducing  foreign  capital  to  enter  a new 


FINANCE,  INDUSTRIES,  RAILWAYS  331 


country,  which  is  absolutely  necessary  to  its  well-being, 
has  naturally  to  undergo  some  modification  when  such  a 
country  reaches  a certain  stage  of  development. 

The  present  stable  condition  of  Mexican  Government 
finance  is  shown  by  the  budget  statements  for  the  fiscal 
year  1908-1909,  as  presented  by  the  Minister  of  Finance. 
The  figures  are  as  follows,  in  round  numbers  : — 

Mex.  Dols. 

Estimated  normal  revenue  103,385,000 

Estimated  normal  expenditure 103,204,000 

1 8 x,ooo 


As  before  stated,  an  annual  surplus  has  been  forth- 
coming since  the  year  1895,  with  some  fluctuations. 
Out  of  these  increasing  surpluses  large  sums  have  been 
spent  upon  important  public  works,  which  have  been 
elements  for  the  commercial  development  of  the  country 
and  its  growing  trade.  In  addition  to  this,  foreign  loans 
have  been  contracted  for  the  completion  of  such  public 
works.  The  loan  of  1905,  for  the  sum  of  40  million  dollars 
gold,  was  placed  with  bankers  of  London,  New  York, 
Berlin,  and  Amsterdam,  the  bonds  being  purchased  at  89 
per  cent,  of  their  nominal  value,  free  of  commission, 
carrying  only  4 per  cent,  interest.  It  is  interesting  to 
compare  this  operation  with  Mexico’s  first  loan,  consum- 
mated in  London  in  1823,  for  16  million  pesos,  which 
was  bought  by  the  contracting  firm  at  50  per  cent.  But 
it  is  to  be  recollected  that  the  Holy  Alliance  was  at 
work  then,  and  that  the  belief  was  rampant  that  Spain 
would  recover  her  lost  colonies  ! 1 

If  the  position  of  Mexico’s  treasury  is  satisfactory,  that 
of  the  general  business  of  the  nation  is  also  upon  an 
excellent  footing,  as  shown  by  the  returns  for  imports  and 
exports.  Those  for  the  financial  year  ending  June,  1907, 
are  as  follows  : — 


Total  imports 

Total  exports 

Balance  in  favour  of  exports 
1 See  page  125. 


23-336,300 

24,801,800 

£1,465,500 


332 


MEXICO 


Whilst  the  figures  quoted  in  these  and  the  following 
tables  for  the  fiscal  year  of  1907  may  be  looked  upon  as 
showing  the  normal  condition  and  growth,  the  figures 
for  1908  have  shown  a considerable  decrease,  amounting 
to  more  than  a million  sterling  on  the  imports,  and  more 
than  half  a million  in  the  exports.  In  both  cases, 
however,  they  are  in  excess  of  the  amounts  for  the  year 
1906.  The  principal  decrease  is  in  the  trade  with  the 
United  States,  and  in  fact,  the  fluctuation  has  been 
brought  about  by  the  monetary  stringency  that  has  pre- 
vailed in  Mexico  following  upon  the  financial  crisis  in 
the  United  States,  which  has  affected  business  to  a con- 
siderable extent.  It  must  take  a year  or  so  for  these 
conditions  to  right  themselves,  but  they  are  far  from 
being  permanent. 

It  is  to  be  recollected  that  Mexico  is  called  upon  to  pay 
large  sums  annually  to  the  foreign  holders  of  her  National 
Debt,  which  calls  for  .£2,400,000,  and  to  the  railway 
bondholders,  in  ^2,500,000,  and  other  amounts  paid  out 
as  dividends  by  the  banks  to  various  private  enterprises, 
a total  which,  of  course,  largely  exceeds  the  trade  balance 
due  to  exports,  and  which  is  covered  by  the  investment  of 
foreign  capital  in  the  country. 

The  character  and  value  of  the  imported  articles  for 
the  year  and  sum  above  given,  which  are  instructive  as 
showing  the  present  wants  of  Mexico,  are  shown  in  the 
following  table,  year  1906-1907  : — 


£ 


Animal  substances  

1.923.400 

Vegetable  substances 

3,i73.ioo 

Mineral  substances  

8,287,200 

Textile  products  

2,6.50,000 

Chemical  products  

95o,7oo 

Wines  and  liquors  

729,600 

Paper,  etc 

602,700 

Machinery,  etc.  

2,773,600 

Vehicles 

900,000 

Arms,  explosives  

390,800 

Miscellaneous 

955,400 

£23,336,300 


FINANCE,  INDUSTRIES,  RAILWAYS  333 


The  exports  for  the  similar  period,  as  detailed  in  the 
following  table,  with  their  values,  show  the  wide  range 
of  Mexican  products  which  are  purchased  by  other 
countries.  Fractions  are  omitted  : 


Mineral  Products.  £ 

Mexican  gold  coin  3,ooo 

Foreign  gold  coin  1,000 

Gold  bullion  1,890,600 

Other  gold  492,800 

Mexican  silver  coin 2,452,200 

Foreign  silver  coin  16,800 

Silver  bullion 6,319,100 

Other  silver  1,986,800 

Copper 2,801,800 

Lead  364,500 

Zinc  201,000 

Antimony  142,700 

Other  mineral  products  1x9,300 


Total  mineral  products 


£16,246,000 


Vegetable  Products. 

Henequcn  (hemp)  

Coffee  

India-rubber  and  guayule 

Pease  

Ixtle  fibre  

Vanilla 

Timber 

Chicle  (chewing  gum) 

Tobacco,  raw 

Broom  root  

Frijol  beans  

Dyewood  

Fresh  fruits  

Mulberry  wood  

Guayule , raw 


£ 

3,144,000 

723,700 

667,900 

408.500 
381,300 
266,200 
217,000 

214.500 

189.500 
183,100 

86,370 

74.000 

34.000 
9,500 
6,100 


With  other 
total  of 


vegetable  products,  giving  a 


£7,181,000 


Animal  Products.  £ 

Cattle  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  156,000 

Hides  and  skins  887,500 

Other  matters 76,700 


Total  £1,115,200 


334 


MEXICO 


Manufactured  Products. 

Sugar  

Cotton  seed,  meat  and  cakes 

Palmetto  hats 

Tobacco  

Tanned  hides,  &c 


£ 

1 16,400 
84,630 
63,120 
50,000 
3,500 


With  other  matters  making  a total  of 


...  £377,ooo 


By  the  foregoing  it  is  seen  that  the  export  of  precious 
metal  is  equal  approximately  to  half  the  total.  Mexican 
silver  coinage  is  exported  largely  to  the  Orient,  and  silver 
bullion  to  Europe  ; whilst  among  vegetable  products  the 
hemp  exports  take  nearly  half  the  total  value.  Mexico’s 
principal  market  for  most  of  her  staple  food  and  textile 
products  is  at  home,  so  the  export  is  small. 

By  far  the  greater  part  of  Mexico’s  trade  is  done  with 
her  northern  neighbour,  the  United  States,  and  the 
following  table  shows  how  the  various  countries  of  the 
world  rank  in  their  commerce  with  the  Republic, 


according  to  the  figures 

for 

the  year 

1906-1907, 

£ sterling,  with  fractions  omitted.1 

Country. 

Exports. 

Imports. 

£ 

£ 

Great  Britain  

3,187,000 

2,360,000 

Germany  

2,011,000 

2,450,000 

France  ...  

805,500 

1,760,000 

Belgium  

538,000 

300,000 

Spain 

300,000 

800,000 

With  other  countries,  European 

total  

6,850,000 

8,330,000 

United  States  

17,581,000 

14^38,000 

Canada  

45,700 

45,000 

Central  America  

79,000 

7,000 

South  America  

10,000 

39,000 

West  Indies 

237,000 

19,000 

Sum  Total  

24,800,000 

23,336,000 

Thus  the  commerce  of 

Mexico  is  seen  to  be  in 

satisfactory  and  growing  condition,  and  it  may  be 
1 Adduced  from  the  “ Mexican  Year  Book,  1908.” 


FINANCE,  INDUSTRIES,  RAILWAYS  335 


expected  to  develop  steadily,  as  the  large  unworked 
areas  of  minerals  and  agricultural  land  become  opened 
up  by  both  native  and  foreign  capital,  towards  which 
there  is  an  increasing  tendency  to  investment. 

Banks  and  Currency. — The  chartered  banks  of  Mexico 
are  considered  to  be  solid  institutions,  and  their  past 
history  has  been  a creditable  one.  The  leading  banks 
are  : the  National  Bank  of  Mexico,  with  a capital  of 
£3,200,000,  and  reserves  of  -£2,675,000  ; the  Bank  of 
London  and  Mexico,  capital  .£2,150,000,  reserve  fund, 
.£1,500,000 ; the  Mexican  Central  Bank,  capital 
-£3,000,000  ; and  various  other  mortgage  and  commerce 
banks,  clearing  house,  &c.  ; whilst  throughout  the  state 
capitals  are  the  respective  chartered  banks  of  such  states, 
as  the  banks  of  Chihuahua,  Yucatan,  Durango,  Zacatecas, 
&c.,  &c.  The  total  capital  of  all  Mexican  banks  is  given 
as  nearly  ^20,250,000.  The  currency  of  Mexico  is  now 
established  on  the  gold  basis.  Previous  to  the  year  1905 
a bimetallic  system  had  always  prevailed  in  Mexico,  a 
gold  and  silver  currency  ; and  as  Mexico  was  one  of  the 
largest  producers  of  silver  in  the  world  she  had  naturally 
encouraged  the  use  of  the  white  metal,  whose  coinage 
at  the  mint  was  free  ; whilst  the  demand  in  the  Orient  for 
Mexican  dollars  was  a stimulant  to  the  production  of 
these.  The  fall  in  the  price  of  silver  was,  to  a certain 
extent,  beneficial  rather  than  inimical  to  Mexican 
industry,  as  it  had  the  effect  of  stimulating  home  manu- 
facture in  a country  whose  raw  material  and  labour  was 
paid  for  in  silver.  This  would  have  been  permanently 
beneficial  had  the  value  remained  constant,  but  the 
continual  fluctuation  in  the  price  had  an  unfavourable 
effect  on  commerce,  and  a monetary  commission  decided 
that  the  gold  basis  should  be  adopted,  and  this  became 
law  accordingly  ; the  Mexican  peso  or  dollar  being  of  a 
value  of  half  an  American  dollar,  or  equal  to  approxi- 
mately 2s.  of  British  currency. 

Principal  Industries. — These  have  already  been  spoken 
of  in  the  chapters  dealing  with  mining  and  agriculture. 
There  are  throughout  the  country  more  than  150  metallur- 


336 


MEXICO 


gical  establishments,  native  and  foreign,  which  treat  the 
mineral  ores  from  the  mines,  either  by  amalgamation, 
lixiviation,  or  smelting.  The  principal  smelting  works 
are  those  of  the  American  Smelting  and  Refining  Com- 
pany, of  New  York,  with  a copper  smelter  at  Aguasca- 
lientes  of  2,000  tons  daily  capacity,  and  others  at 
Monterrey,  Chihuahua,  and  Durango,  well-equipped 
modern  establishments ; the  Compania  Metalurgica 
Mexicana,  also  of  New  York,  with  a large  plant  at 
San  Luis  Potosi,  and  other  enterprises  in  various  parts 
of  the  country  engaged  in  the  production  of  gold  and 
silver  bullion,  copper  matte,  lead,  zinc,  &c.  A good  deal 
of  ore  is  still  exported,  nevertheless,  in  a crude  state, 
amounting  in  1907  to  a value  of  ^1,700,000.  The 
Mexican  Chamber  of  Mines,  founded  in  1906,  is  a 
useful  institution  in  connection  with  the  mining 
industry. 

The  cheap  labour  and  abundant  raw  material  are 
conducive  to  Mexico’s  development  in  manufacturing  ; 
and  a further  element  is  that  of  the  abundant  water- 
power which  exists  in  certain  sections  of  the  country. 
Several  important  hydraulic  and  hydro-electric  generating 
stations  exist,  among  them  being  the  Santa  Gertrude’s 
Jute  Mills  of  Orizaba,  developing  some  5,000  horse  power, 
operated  by  British  capital  ; the  Vera  Cruz  Light, 
Power  and  Traction  Company,  Ltd.,  also  British  ; the 
Atoyac  Irrigation  Company,  native  capital ; the  Anglo- 
Mexican  Electric  Company  of  Puebla  ; the  Puebla  Tram- 
way, Light  and  Power  Company,  a Canadian  enterprise 
of  great  extent  and  promise ; the  Mexican  Light  and 
Power  Company,  also  Canadian,  which  absorbed  several 
existing  native  and  foreign  enterprises.  Connected  with 
some  of  these  important  and  generally  prosperous  hydro- 
electric installations  the  name  of  a well-known  British 
firm 1 figures  prominently ; the  builders  of  the  great 
valley  drainage  work  and  the  re-constructors  of  the 
Tehuantepec  Railway  and  harbour  works,  and  the  Vera 
Cruz  harbour  works,  and  other  matters  of  magnitude. 

' S.  Pearson  and  Sons,  Ltd.,  London. 


BRITISH  ENGINEERING  WORK  IN  MEXICO  : BUILDING  A BREAKWATER. 


FINANCE,  INDUSTRIES,  RAILWAYS  337 


So  if,  as  has  been  stated  elsewhere,  British  trade  in 
Mexico  is  declining,  it  is  at  least  satisfactory  to  show  that 
British  capital  and  enterprise  has  established  and  profited 
by  some  of  the  greatest  engineering  and  public  works 
Mexico  has  ever  possessed  ; which  will  always  remain  as 
monuments  to  British  thoroughness.  Other  hydro- 
electric stations  are  those  of  Guadalajara,  at  the  famous 
falls  of  Juanacatlan,  operated  by  native  capital  ; the 
Guanajuato  Light  and  Power  Company,  an  American 
concern,  with  a transmission  line  ioo  miles  long. 

As  to  the  textile  industry , the  cotton  mills  are  amongst 
the  foremost  in  the  world,  and  their  large  capacity  and 
splendidly-built  factories  are  a source  of  surprise  to  the 
European  or  American  traveller.  A large  number  of 
these  mills  are  actuated  hydraulically  or  hydro-electri- 
cally.  In  1907  there  were  142  mills  throughout  the 
country  in  operation,  employing  33,000  operatives,  with 
694,000  spindles,  and  23,500  looms.  Of  these  mills 
35  are  in  Puebla,  12  in  the  Federal  District,  11  in 
Coahuila,  14  in  Vera  Cruz,  and  the  balance  in  the 
other  states,  whether  upon  the  mesa  central  or  upon  the 
Atlantic  or  Pacific  slopes.  Among  the  most  important  of 
these  industries  may  be  named  the  Industrial  Com- 
pany of  Orizaba,  whose  output  in  1907  reached  a value 
of  -£850,000,  with  a profit  of  .£255,000  to  its  French 
owners ; the  Vera  Cruz  Industrial  Company,  profit 
.£84,000  ; Atlixco  Industrial  Company,  Puebla,  French 
owners,  profit  .£89,500  ; San  Antonio  Abad  Company, 
State  of  Mexico,  Spanish  owners,  profit  8 per  cent,  paid 
in  1907  upon  its  capital  of  ^350,000  ; and  numerous 
other  lesser,  but  profitable  concerns,  scattered  about  the 
Republic.  The  amount  of  cotton  used  by  the  Mexican 
mills  in  1907  was  36,700  metric  tons,  and  the  total  value 
of  the  output  was  -£5,168,000.  Thus  is  shown  how 
important  for  Mexico  is  her  textile  industry.1 

Other  enterprises  are  the  Santa  Gertrudes  Jute  Mills , 
and  the  Aurora  Jute  Mills  ; the  San  Ildenfonso  Woollen 
Factory,  the  Mexico  linen  factory,  silk  factory  and 

1 These  figures  of  dividends  are  from  the  Mexican  Year  Book,  1908. 


340 


MEXICO 


which  are  encouraged  by  the  Department  of  Fomento, 
and  the  field  is  not  without  attraction  for  foreign  capital. 

Railways. — In  the  chapter  dealing  with  the  natural 
resources  and  conditions  of  the  various  states,  some 
details  of  the  railway  system  have  been  given.  Mexico’s 
railways  have  been  the  principal  agency  for  her  develop- 
ment, both  political  and  commercial,  for,  on  the  one 
hand,  they  have  rendered  possible  the  swift  suppression 
of  revolutionary  menace,  and,  on  the  other,  they  have 
fulfilled  their  function  as  means  of  communication  for 
goods  and  passengers.  No  country  has  ever  showed  the 
effects  of  the  steadying  influence  of  railways  so  markedly 
as  Mexico.  The  close  communication  with  the  United 
States,  so  rendered  possible,  and  with  the  Gulf  seaboard, 
has  also  contributed  to  this  end,  and  the  railways  of 
Mexico  may  be  looked  upon  as  safeguards  for  stability 
in  a considerable  degree.  I will  now  give  a brief  resume 
of  the  principal  railway  lines  and  their  general  conditions. 

The  first  line  to  put  Mexico  in  touch  with  the  outside 
world  was  the  Mexican  Railway  from  Vera  Cruz  to  the 
capital.  This  work,  having  been  much  aided  by  the 
Maximilian  regime,  was  completed  under  President 
Lerdo,  and  inaugurated  on  January  i,  1873.  The  line 
is  controlled  by  an  English  corporation,  and  the  great 
engineering  difficulties  which  were  overcome,  and  the 
solidity  of  its  construction,  are  such  as  are  scarcely  sur- 
passed by  any  railway  in  the  world,  conditions  which 
reflect  credit  upon  its  British  constructors.  The  line  is 
almost  unique  from  a scenic  point  of  view,  ascending, 
as  it  does,  from  the  Gulf  Coast,  among  the  stupendous 
mountain  fastnesses  of  the  Sierra  Madre,  to  gain  the 
great  elevation  of  the  plateau  and  the  Valley  of  Mexico. 
The  tropical  regions  passed  through,  and  the  rapid 
changes  of  climate  encountered,  as  the  train  ascends, 
must  be  experienced  to  be  understood,  but  the  general 
character  of  the  regions  traversed  has  been  fully  set  forth 
in  these  pages.  One  of  the  most  remarkable  places,  from 
an  engineering  and  scenic  point  of  view,  is  the  Maltrata 
summit,  and  only  in  a few  places  in  the  world — on  the 


THE  MITLAC  RAVINE:  VIEW  ON  THE  MEXICAN  RAILWAY. 


FINANCE,  INDUSTRIES,  RAILWAYS  341 


transandine  or  transalpine  railways,  or  the  Denver  line 
— is  it  equalled.  From  the  gained  altitude  the  passenger 
looks  down  upon  the  town,  spread  like  a chess-board, 
thousands  of  feet  below,  as  the  train  plunges  around 
dizzy  barrancas,  over  iron  bridges  spanning  profound 
canyons,  or  along  the  curving  road-bed  cut  in  the  solid 
rock  of  the  mountain  side.  The  names  of  many  of  the 
points  passed  en  route  bring  back  memories  of  the 
Conquest,  and  of  those  Homeric  men  who  passed  that 
way  nearly  four  centuries  ago,  as  well  as  of  the  Toltec 
and  Aztec  periods.  From  tide-water  at  Vera  Cruz,  the 
line  crosses  the  coastal  plain  and  plunges  into  a tropical 
forest,  whence  it  climbs  to  2,713  feet  at  Cordova,  4,028 
feet  at  Orizaba,  amid  a delightful  climate  and  surround- 
ings, 5,151  feet  at  Maltrata,  8,000  feet  at  Esperanza,  and 
reaches  its  highest  point  at  Acocotla,  near  San  Marcos, 
an  elevation  of  8,310  feet  above  sea-level.  This,  of  course, 
is  not  high  in  comparison  with  the  transandine  Oroya 
railway  of  Peru,1  which — the  highest  in  the  world — 
reaches  15,666  feet.  The  Vera  Cruz  line  descends  from 
the  summit  of  the  Sierra  Madre  to  the  Valley  and  City 
of  Mexico,  past  the  plains  of  Otumba  and  San  Juan 
Teotihuacan,  reaching  the  capital  at  an  elevation  of 
7,348  feet  above  sea-level.  The  length  of  the  line  from 
Vera  Cruz  to  the  City  of  Mexico  is  264  miles,  and  with  its 
branches  to  Puebla  and  Pachuca,  &c.,  321  miles — all  of 
standard  gauge.  The  total  share  capital  for  a line  of 
his  mileage  is  heavy,  the  whole  of  the  stock  and  shares 
•eaching  .£7,820,780.  The  general  growth  of  Mexico's 
.rade  and  the  careful  management  of  the  line  are 
causing  an  improvement  in  its  financial  condition.  In 
January,  1902,  a dividend  of  only  2\  per  cent,  was  paid 
upon  the  first  preference  stock,  and  nothing  upon  the 
second  nor  upon  the  ordinary  shares,  whilst  an  increase 
in  the  following  years,  through  6 per  cent,  and  8 per  cent., 
accrued  to  the  first,  so  that  for  the  last  half-year  of  1907, 
8 per  cent. — its  full  rate — was  paid  upon  the  first  prefer- 
ence stock,  5I  on  the  second,  and  nothing  on  the  ordinary 
1 See  my  “ Peru.” 


342 


MEXICO 


shares.  The  returns  at  present  are  suffering  from  the 
results  consequent  upon  the  late  financial  crisis  in  the 
United  States,  which  seriously  affected  Mexico. 

The  Mexican  Central  is  the  next  line  in  importance. 
It  is  a noteworthy  feature  of  Mexico's  relations  in  the 
middle  of  last  century  with  its  neighbour — the  United 
States,  that  President  Lerdo  discouraged  the  idea  of 
traversing  the  deserts  of  the  great  plateau  with  a 
railway,  fearful  of  American  political  and  commercial 
machinations,  as  showed  by  his  famous  axiom,  which 
I have  quoted  elsewhere,  relating  to  the  intervening 
desert.  To  the  broader  outlook  of  President  Diaz  this 
line  owes  its  being,  upon  a concession  transferred  to 
an  Englishman,  who  was  associated  with  American 
capitalists.  A company  was  formed,  and  the  railway — 
which  was  subsidised  by  the  Government — was  opened 
for  traffic  from  the  City  of  Mexico  to  the  United  States 
frontier  at  El  Paso  on  March  22,  1884.  To-day,  with 
its  numerous  branches,  one  of  which  runs  eastwardly 
to  the  Gulf  Coast  at  Tampico,  and  another,  westwardly 
to  Guadalajara  and  beyond,  with  yet  another  to  Cuerna- 
vaca, it  is  a large  system  of  3,823  miles.  The  con- 
struction was  inferior  to  that  of  the  Vera  Cruz  Railway, 
as  it  obeyed  the  cheaper  and  more  rapid  American 
method  rather  than  the  more  enduring  British.  It  is 
a standard  gauge  line.  The  route  traversed  by  the  main 
line  of  this  railway  adown  the  mesa  central,  for  1,225 
miles,  passes  through  vast  areas  of  dry  and  treeless  plains 
and  among  numerous  squalid  hamlets,  and  here  the  un- 
lovely side  of  Mexican  life  and  travel  is  laid  bare  to  the 
traveller.  Nevertheless,  these  conditions  alternate  with 
those  of  the  handsome  and  extensive  cities  of  the  plateau 
and  with  the  great  mining  regions,  all  of  which — in  point 
of  interest  and  value — compensate  for  sterility  elsewhere. 
As  for  the  branch  line  from  San  Luis  Potosi  to  Tampico, 
it  passes  through  the  same  remarkable  tropical  zone  as 
the  Vera  Cruz  line.  The  mountain  scenery  upon  this 
route  is  impressive,  with  dense  woods  and  fertile  valleys 
giving  place  to  the  great  canon  of  Tamasopo.  The 


BRIDGES  OVER  THE  ATOYAC  RIVER  I MEXICAN  RAILWAY. 


FINANCE,  INDUSTRIES,  RAILWAYS  343 


same  panoramic  character  attends  it,  of  luxuriant 
tropical  conditions  spread  out  1,200  feet  below  the 
train,  with  rushing  torrents,  towering  cliffs,  and  strange 
and  varied  topographic  changes.  The  branch  which 
runs  westwardly  towards  the  Pacific  Ocean  from  the 
main  line,  passes  through  Guadalajara  and  descends 
the  Western  Sierra  Madre  towards  Colima  at  Tuxpan. 
A short  distance  only  remains  to  be  constructed  in  order 
to  give  a completed  route  to  Manzanillo — the  port  upon 
the  Pacific  coast,  which  will  form  the  terminus  of  what 
will  then  constitute  a new  transcontinental  route  from 
the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific.  This  is  an  exceedingly  inte- 
resting journey,  but  a disastrous  flood  in  1906  set  back  the 
construction  work.  The  branch  line  from  the  Mexican 
Central,  which  runs  from  the  City  of  Mexico  westwardly 
to  the  Balsas  river,  is  destined  ultimately  to  reach  the 
famous  seaport  of  Acapulco,  on  the  Pacific  Ocean.  This 
port,  indeed,  is  the  best  harbour  on  the  Pacific  coast  of 
North  America,  after  San  Francisco  in  California.  The 
line,  however,  is  still  far  from  reaching  the  coast. 
Cuernavaca,  which  is  passed  by  this  line,  is  some  75 
miles  from  the  capital,  and  the  route  lies  through  a 
scenic  wonderland,  reaching,  at  the  summit  of  the  Sierra 
Madre,  an  elevation  of  10,000  feet  above  sea-level,  and 
affording  a magnificent  view  of  the  City  and  Valley  of 
Mexico  2,500  feet  below.  Beautiful  and  historic, 
Cuernavaca  was  a home  of  Montezuma  and  a famous 
prehistoric  centre  until  its  capture  by  Cortes,  and  every 
Mexican  traveller  marks  it  as  one  of  his  objective  points. 
The  finances  of  the  Mexican  Central  Railway  have  been 
in  recent  years  often  in  an  unsatisfactory  state,  and  the 
consolidation  of  the  line  with  the  National  Railway, 
under  Government  auspices,  is  expected  to  bring  about 
a more  favourable  condition. 

The  National  Railroad  similarly  traverses  the  great 
plateau,  from  Laredo,  upon  the  United  States  border, 
to  the  City  of  Mexico.  It  was  a subsidised  narrow- 
gauge  line,  built  under  American  auspices,  and  was 
opened  for  traffic  in  November,  1888.  The  inevitable 


344 


MEXICO 


widening  of  the  gauge  to  standard  size  took  place,  and 
was  completed  in  November,  1903.  The  length  of  the 
main  line  is  800  miles ; the  shortest  route  from 
the  United  States  border  to  the  capital.  The  Inter- 
oceanic  Railway,  a British  company,  which  forms 
part  of  the  consolidated  system  now,  will  give  it  a 
line  to  Vera  Cruz,  whilst,  via  the  International  Railway, 
it  has  communication  westwardly  to  the  important 
city  of  Durango.  Another  branch  line  runs  to  Mata- 
moros,  upon  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The  line  also  traverses 
a portion  of  Texas. 

The  Interoceanic  Railway  is  a main  line  from  the 
capital  to  Vera  Cruz,  passing  through  the  town  of 
Jalapa,  amid  a region  famed  for  its  beauty  and  unique 
tropical  surroundings ; and  the  line  was  constructed 
and  operated  by  British  interests.  It  embodies  736 
miles  of  line.  Its  original  concession  was  designed  for 
powers  to  run  to  Acapulco,  on  the  Pacific  coast ; hence 
the  name  of  the  railway ; but  it  does  not  nearly  reach 
the  coast,  although  it  descends  into  and  serves  the 
fertile  and  picturesque  State  of  Morelos,  connecting 
at  Puente  de  Ixtla  with  the  Mexican  Central  Railway. 
From  that  point  a branch  line  runs  to  Puebla,  the 
second  or  third  important  city  of  importance  in  Mexico  ; 
passing  near  the  famous  town  of  Cholula,  of  Aztec  and 
Toltec  remembrance.  The  Interoceanic  is  now  merged 
into  the  new  consolidation  arrangement. 

The  International  Railway  runs  also  from  the  United 
States  border,  at  Ciudad  Porfirio  Diaz,  or  Eagle  Pass, 
across  the  great  plateau  to  the  city  of  Durango,  as 
before  mentioned,  passing  through  important  agricul- 
tural, manufacturing  and  coal-bearing  regions. 

The  Hidalgo  and  North-Eastern  is  a narrow-gauge 
railway,  152  miles  long,  from  the  City  of  Mexico  into 
the  State  of  Hidalgo,  and  forms  a part  of  the  Mexican 
national  system. 

In  the  consolidation  or  fusion  of  the  foregoing  lines, 
that  is  to  say,  the  Mexican  Central,  National,  Inter- 
national, and  Interoceanic,  the  Government  has  a 


THE  SEAPORT  OF  VERA  CRUZ, 


FINANCE,  INDUSTRIES,  RAILWAYS  345 


dominating  interest  of  85  per  cent,  of  the  capital 
stock,  and  the  control  of  this  great  system  and  com- 
pany, now  termed  the  “ National  Railways  of  Mexico,’' 
with  an  authorised  capital  of  615  million  pesos,  or 
^61,500,000,  will  be  mainly  a State  affair ; and  any 
profits  accruing  from  the  enterprise  after  payment  of 
interest  on  bonds  and  dividends  on  preferred  stock, 
will  go  to  the  Mexican  nation. 

The  Tehuantepec  Railway  is  a very  important  line, 
in  that  it  forms  a short  transcontinental  route  across 
North  America,  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific  Oceans  ; 
and  it  may  be  expected  to  compete  with  the  Panama 
Canal,  in  the  carriage  of  passengers  and  freight.  The 
distance  from  ocean  to  ocean  in  an  air  line  is  only 
125  miles,  and  the  line  itself  is  only  192  miles  long. 
This  interesting  route  crosses  the  divortia  aquarum,  or 
water  parting,  of  the  continent  at  an  elevation  of  only 
730  feet  above  sea-level,  at  the  Chivela  Pass.  The 
isthmus  of  Tehuantepec  has  been  considered  of  geo- 
graphical interest  ever  since  the  expeditions  of  Cortes 
discovered  it.  Projects  both  for  a canal  and  a ship- 
railway have  at  different  times  during  last  century  been 
brought  forward  to  traverse  it.  The  existing  railway 
line  was  built  in  1894,  but  its  construction  was  faulty, 
and,  moreover,  the  terminal  ports,  Coatzacoalcos  on 
the  Gulf  side,  and  Salina  Cruz  on  the  Pacific  side, 
were  inadequate.  In  1899  an  English  firm  was  called 
in  by  the  Mexican  Government ; contracts  entered  into 
for  the  re-construction  of  the  line,  and  the  making  of 
its  terminal  ports,  all  of  which  has  been  carried  to 
completion  ; a work  of  endurancy,  solidity,  and  utility 
being  the  result,  which  reflects  credit  on  British 
methods  generally  and  upon  the  contracting  engineers 
in  particular.  This  is  the  same  firm1  which  carried 
out  the  great  harbour  works  of  Vera  Cruz,  and  the 
drainage  of  the  Valley  of  Mexico,  and  it  has  earned 
an  enviable  reputation  in  Mexico.  The  Tehuantepec 
Railway  is  1,200  miles  north  of  the  Panama  Coast,  and 

1 See  p.  336. 


346 


MEXICO 


may  be  expected  to  take  a good  deal  of  the  United 
States  and  international  transoceanic  traffic,  as  it  is 
nearest  to  the  “ axial  line  " of  the  world's  commerce  of 
any  American  isthmusian  route.  The  railway  is  owned 
by  the  Mexican  Government,  but  is  worked  by  the 
British  contractors  in  conjunction  therewith  under  a 
partnership  agreement.  At  Salina  Cruz,  the  Pacific 
terminus,  a fine  harbour  has  been  constructed  at  con- 
siderable cost ; and  a dry  dock  capable  of  holding 
vessels  600  feet  long.  The  whole  forms  one  of  the  most 
important  seaports  on  the  American  Pacific  coast,  and 
reflects  credit  on  its  British  constructors  and  on  Mexican 
financial  enterprise. 

The  Mexican  Southern  Railway  is  a narrow-gauge 
railway,  228  miles  long,  running  from  the  city  of 
Puebla  to  the  city  of  Oaxaca,  through  the  fertile  region 
of  Tehuacan.  It  was  built  by  a British  firm 1 of 
engineers,  which  later  carried  out  an  important  part 
of  the  drainage  works  of  the  Valley  of  Mexico.  The 
company  is  British,  and  the  financial  position  of  the 
enterprise,  which  had  been  one  of  difficulty  formerly, 
has,  under  re-construction  and  the  growing  prosperity 
of  the  country,  been  enabled  to  double  its  earnings, 
and  pay  a dividend  upon  its  ordinary  stock. 

The  Vera  Cruz  and  Pacific  Railway  runs  from 
Cordoba,  an  important  town  before  mentioned,  on  the 
Mexican  Railway  to  Vera  Cruz,  to  Santa  Lucrecia,  on 
the  Tehuantepec  Railway  ; and  is  of  much  importance, 
as  it  links  the  general  railway  system  of  the  Republic 
with  the  transisthmus  line.  In  addition  to  this,  it  has 
a branch  line  to  Vera  Cruz,  and  so  becomes  a through 
route  of  travel  from  that  port  to  the  Pacific  Ocean, 
via  Tehuantepec.  The  road  carried  a Government 
subsidy  and  was  financed  in  the  United  States,  but 
due  to  inefficient  management  and  the  heavy  work 
involved  in  construction,  the  company  suspended  pay- 
ments in  1903,  and  the  Government,  in  view  of  the 
strategic  importance  of  the  line,  took  the  property  off 
1 Read,  Campbell  & Co.,  London. 


XI  W PORT  OK  SAI.IXA  CRUZ,  ON  T II K PACIFIC:  TDK  GREAT  DRY  DOCK. 


FINANCE,  INDUSTRIES,  RAILWAYS  347 


the  hands  of  the  company.  The  railway  is  now 
operated  under  Government  auspices  as  an  individual 
concern.  It  is  standard  gauge,  its  length  being  201 
miles  for  ^the  Tehuantepec  connection,  and  62  miles 
for  the  Vera  Cruz  branch. 

The  Vera  Cruz  (Mexico)  Railways — not  to  be  con- 
founded with  the  Mexican  (Vera  Cruz)  Railway — is  a 
narrow-gauge  line  44  miles  long,  running  from  the 
port  of  Vera  Cruz  along  the  coast  to  Alvarado — named 
after  the  Conquistador — a port  near  the  estuary  of  the 
Papaloapam  river.  This  navigable  river,  as  elsewhere 
described,  extends  inland  and  gives  access  to  an  im- 
portant tropical  region.  A tributary  of  this  river,  the 
San  Juan,  is  navigable  for  small  craft  for  a distance 
of  177  miles  from  Alvarado,  at  San  Juan  Evangelista, 
whence  a short  railway  line  connects  with  the  Tehuan- 
tepec Railway,  thus  completing  a through  service  of 
travel.  The  railway  company  and  its  steamers  form 
a British  enterprise,  controlled  by  the  constructors  of 
the  Tehuantepec  Railway. 

In  the  peninsula  of  Yucatan  are  the  United  Railways 
of  Yucatan,  giving  communication  with  the  chief  cities 
and  ports  of  that  region.  The  total  length  of  line 
embodied  in  the  three  divisions  of  this  system  is 
373  miles;  and  there  is  a line  from  Merida  to  Peto, 
of  145  miles. 

Returning  now  to  the  north  of  the  Republic  ; the 
Rio  Grande,  Sierra  Madre,  and  Pacific  Railway  runs 
westwardly  from  Ciudad  Juarez,  or  El  Paso,  for  a 
distance  of  159  miles.  It  is  an  American  enterprise,  and 
traverses  some  good  agricultural  and  mineral  regions, 
serving  the  prosperous  Mormon  colonies  founded  by 
Americans  in  the  State  of  Chihuahua.  It  is  designed 
some  day  to  traverse  the  Sierra  Madre  and  reach  the 
Pacific  Ocean. 

The  Kansas  City,  Mexico  and  Orient  is  an  important 
undertaking  which,  when  it  is  concluded,  will  give  a 
transcontinental  route,  from  the  railway  system  of  the 
United  States  via  Chihuahua,  to  a port  on  the  Pacific 


348 


MEXICO 


Ocean — that  of  Topolobampo,  on  the  Gulf  of  California. 
The  length  of  the  Mexican  portion  of  the  line  is  634 
miles,  of  which  332  are  constructed.  It  opens  up  a 
vast  new  region  of  Western  Mexico,  and  should  be 
of  growing  importance,  and  of  international  service.  It 
is  an  American  enterprise,  with  British  and  Mexican 
associations.  Connected  with  it  is  the  Chihuahua  and 
Pacific  Railway. 

The  Sonora  Railway  runs  from  Nogales  on  the  United 
States  border,  to  the  port  of  Guaymas  on  the  Gulf  of 
California,  as  described  elsewhere,  with  a length  of 
265  miles.  In  connection  with  this  railway,  and  with 
the  Southern  Pacific  Railway  of  the  United  States, 
railway  building  in  Western  Mexico  is  projected  by 
American  capitalists,  over  routes  already  surveyed,  for 
a length  of  more  than  4,000  miles,  portions  of  which 
are  to  be  subsidised  by  the  Mexican  Government. 

The  Pan-American  Railway,  as  its  name  implies,  is 
projected  for  the  purpose  of  uniting  North  and  South 
America  by  rail,  its  ultimate  destination  being  Panama. 
At  present  the  portion  under  construction  is  for  linking 
the  general  system  of  the  Republic  with  the  isolated 
system  of  Yucatan,  and  thence  to  the  frontier  of 
Guatemala.  The  distance  from  its  starting-point  at 
San  Geronimo  on  the  Tehuantepec  line,  to  the  Panama 
Canal,  is  1,650  miles  ; and  the  line  is  to  form  a link  in 
the  great  project  of  a rail  route  from  New  York  to 
Buenos  Ayres.  It  is  an  American  enterprise. 

There  are  numerous  other  short  lines  throughout 
Mexico,  serving  mineral  and  agricultural  regions,  whether 
under  Mexican,  British,  American,  or  other  owner- 
ship, giving  a total  length  of  existing  Mexico  railways, 
of  14,180  miles.  Thus  it  is  shown  that  Mexico  is 
covered  with  a network  of  railways,  connected  with 
each  other  and  with  the  system  of  the  United  States, 
throughout  the  great  length  of  her  territory  from  north 
to  south,  and  crossing  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  to  the 
Pacific  Ocean — in  practically  two  instances — one  com- 
pleted and  in  operation,  the  other  nearing  completion. 


FINANCE,  INDUSTRIES,  RAILWAYS  349 


The  new  railway  laws  of  Mexico  will  prevent  undue 
competition  and  the  duplicating  of  existing  lines  ; and 
the  Republic’s  railways  ought  in  the  future  to  be  of 
developing  value,  in  view  of  the  considerable  resources 
of  the  territory  which  they  traverse,  and  of  their 
geographical  importance. 

In  brief,  the  commercial  and  industrial  life  of  Mexico 
is  young  but  full  of  promise,  and  has  entered  upon 
a course  whose  present  surroundings  seem  favourable 
and  well  founded. 


CHAPTER  XVII 


GENERAL  CONCLUSIONS 

Mexico’s  unique  conditions — Her  future — Asiatic  immigrants — Fostering  of 
the  native  race — Encouraging  of  immigration — The  white  man  in 
the  American  tropics — Future  of  Mexican  manufactures — The  Pan- 
American  Congress — Pan-American  railway — Mexico  and  Spain — 
The  Monroe  doctrine — Mexico,  Europe,  and  the  United  States — 
Promising  future  of  Mexico. 

The  foregoing  study  of  the  Republic  of  Mexico  shows 
that  the  country  and  its  inhabitants  embody  some  unique 
conditions.  Geographically  its  situation  is  important, 
geologically  and  topographically  it  contains  much  that  is 
remarkable  ; whilst,  historically,  the  ancient  civilisation 
which  dwelt  there,  and  the  strenuous  happenings  upon 
its  soil  since  the  advent  of  the  Europeans,  mark  it  out 
specially  from  the  rest  of  the  American  world.  As  to  its 
flora  and  fauna,  even  they  present  a curious  transition 
stage  between  North  and  South  America ; whilst  its 
human  races  form  the  most  remarkable  blending  of 
peoples  to  be  found  in  the  New  World. 

So  varied  a set  of  conditions  naturally  cause  the  student 
to  inquire  as  to  the  probable  value  of  Mexico  as  a factor 
in  civilisation.  The  European  observer  of  American 
States  criticises  these  from  a special  standpoint.  America, 
as  a new  world,  has  had  a unique  opportunity  for  making 
a step  forward  in  the  things  which  should  be  for  the 
good  of  mankind,  and  an  account  of  their  stewardship 
naturally  forms  part  of  a study  of  these  new  nations. 

350 


CONCLUSION 


351 


Mexico  must  now  be  classed  as  a modern  nation,  ful- 
filling an  orderly  destiny.  As  such  it  must  of  necessity 
have  some  voice  in  international  matters,  and  among  the 
nations  of  the  New  World  the  Republic  has  already 
lifted  up  its  voice  in  questions  of  American  affairs.  The 
attitude  of  Mexico  in  world-politics  is  not  without 
interest.  Her  geographical  situation  midway  between 
the  two  great  oceans  of  the  world,  the  Atlantic  and  the 
Pacific,  and  between  the  two  vast  continents  of  the 
Americas,  is  one  of  considerable  commercial  and 
strategic  value.  That  part  of  her  territory  known  as  the 
isthmus  of  Tehuantepec  has  not  inaptly  been  termed 
‘‘the  bridge  of  the  world’s  commerce,”  as  elsewhere 
mentioned,  and  as  such,  indeed,  it  may  play  an  important 
part,  analogous  to  that  of  the  Panama  Canal,  being,  as  it 
is,  more  than  a thousand  miles  nearer  to  the  world’s 
great  populations  and  the  trade  route  of  commerce  than 
that  famous  isthmus.  Mexico  states  that  she  looks 
towards  Asia  with  equal  favour  as  towards  Europe,  and 
geographically  she  may  do  so  indeed.  But  this  is  a 
sentiment  which — except  in  the  mere  matter  of  buying 
and  selling — time  will  show  to  be  untenable.  Mexico  is 
a “ European  ” state,  in  character,  tradition,  and  civilisa- 
tion ; and  she,  in  common  with  all  Latin  America,  must 
continue  largely  to  draw  her  inspirations,  and  to  augment 
her  population  from  old  Europe,  not  from  Asia  ; nor, 
indeed,  save  in  certain  respects,  from  her  Anglo-American 
neighbour,  the  United  States. 

A greater  population,  and  of  a higher  calibre,  is 
one  of  Mexico’s  chief  desiderata.  The  introduction  of 
Asiatics  is  permitted  and  even  encouraged  at  present,  but 
it  is  impossible  that  a growing  enlightenment  will  permit 
this  to  continue.  It  must  be  disastrous  to  a country  to 
admit  Asiatics  to  permanent  habitation  in  quantities, 
and  such  can  only  be  done  in  obedience  to  dictates  of 
a selfish  nature,  emanating,  for  example,  from  greedy 
plantation-  or  mine-owners,  whose  main  object  is  that 
of  present  profits,  regardless  of  the  future.  The  natives 
of  Mexico,  like  those  of  other  Hispanic-American 


352 


MEXICO 


countries,  are  far  superior  to  Asiatics,  and  it  is  to  the 
advantage  of  Mexico  that  its  Government  should  foster 
the  growth  of  the  vigorous  and  useful  peon  race,  and 
sternly  set  its  face  against  the  introduction  of  Chinese  or 
other  Asiatics  as  elements  of  colonisation.  There  is  a 
favourable  circumstance  attending  the  matter  of  increase 
of  population  in  Spanish-American  countries : the  women 
are  prolific,  and,  moreover,  the  influence  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  religion  tends  at  present  to  prevent  the  adoption 
of  the  condition  known  as  “ race-suicide."  Equally  with 
this  fostering  of  the  native  race  must  be  the  encourag- 
ing of  European  immigration,  such  as  Spaniards, 
Italians,  and  others.  The  Americans  of  the  United 
States  cannot  furnish  Mexico  with  new  citizens  or 
workers,  tillers  of  the  soil,  or  builders,  or  miners  ; for  the 
United  States  has  her  own  territory  to  develop,  and, 
moreover,  the  American  citizen  will  never  perform 
manual  labour  outside  his  own  country.  Both  the 
Americans  and  the  British  will  furnish  capital  and  brains 
for  Mexico's  development,  but  of  workers  in  the  field  they 
will  send  none. 

In  this  connection,  however,  the  future  may  hold 
much,  unsuspected  at  present.  The  question  is  con- 
stantly to  the  fore  now  as  to  whether  the  white  man  is 
able  to  perform  manual  work  in  the  tropics,  and  large 
portions  of  Mexico  and  Spanish-America  generally  are 
situated  in  tropical  zones.  The  reply  to  the  question  is 
twofold.  First,  the  advancing  science  of  sanitation,  and 
kindred  matters,  are  showing  that  the  unfavourable 
conditions  encountered  in  tropical  lands  are  capable  of 
change,  and  that  regions  hitherto  unhealthy  can  be  made 
habitable  for  alien  white  men.  There  can  be  little  doubt 
that  sweeping  adverse  statements  about  the  impossibility 
of  the  occupation  by  white  races  of  the  tropical  regions, 
especially  of  America,  will  be  belied  in  coming  years. 
The  other  consideration  bearing  upon  this  question  is 
that  there  is  no  necessity  for  the  white  man  to  work  in 
the  tropics  to  the  same  extent  that  he  works  in  temperate 
climates.  Nature  has  done  half  the  work  herself,  and 


CONCLUSION 


353 


it  will  surely  be  found  that  invading  man  must  adapt  his 
habits  to  her  laws  there,  rather  than  pretend  to  implant 
his  own  methods  arbitrarily.  Thus,  a minimum  of  work 
in  the  tropics  secures  shelter  and  sustenance  to  man 
there.  But,  so  far,  this  facility  of  living  has  been  an 
element  for  human  deterioration  rather  than  for  progress. 
The  Indian  squatters  of  the  Mexican  tropics,  or  the 
savage  bands  of  the  Amazonian  forests  of  South  America, 
do  not  tend  towards  development.  But  it  may  be 
different  when  an  educated  and  civilised  race  has, 
perforce,  to  take  up  its  residence  in  such  regions.  The 
struggle  for  life,  for  bread,  roof,  and  clothing,  is  so  much 
less  severe  that  it  may  transpire  that  man,  in  such  regions, 
will  have  more  time  to  develop  the  intellectual  side  of  his 
life,  and  a new  stimulus  and  purpose  might  be  brought  to 
being  from  such  a combination  of  race  and  environment. 
It  is  apparent  already  to  the  observer  that  the  Spanish- 
American  race,  which  largely  inhabits  tropical  America, 
has  developed  a strong  tendency  towards  the  lessening  of 
its  quota  of  manual  labour,  and  an  augmentation  of  its 
cultivating  of  the  theoretical  and  intellectual  side  of  life. 
In  Mexico,  Peru,  or  elsewhere,  the  white  race  forms  an 
upper  class,  lovers  of  leisure  and  of  work  of  an  intellectual 
character.  There  is  no  white  middle-class  of  hand 
labourers.  If  there  is  anything  in  this  theory  and 
tendency  there  may  come  to  being  some  day  a highly- 
developed  race  in  the  American  tropics.  These  con- 
siderations, however,  are  as  yet  far  removed  from  the 
Mexico  of  to-day.  Work  must  be  her  maxim,  hard  work, 
and  development. 

Whether  Mexico  will  ever  become  an  important 
manufacturing  nation  remains  to  be  seen.  The  Mexicans 
are  not  without  considerable  aptitude  as  mechanics,  but 
they  have  not  much  faculty  of  invention  or  origination. 
It  is  very  doubtful  if  any  of  the  Spanish-American 
nations  are  destined  to  shine  as  makers  and  exporters  of 
finished  articles.  Perhaps  the  role  of  evolving  a new 
kind  of  civilisation,  not  dependent  upon  commerce,  is  to 
be  theirs  ! All  of  these  countries  are,  however,  endowed 

24 


354 


MEXICO 


with  elements  essential  to  manufacture  : in  raw  material, 
fuel,  and  water-power. 

Of  international  meetings  which  have  taken  place  in 
Mexico  the  Pan-American  Congress  of  1902  was  of  some 
importance.  The  feasting  and  eloquence,  the  society 
functions  and  self-congratulations  which  ran  riot,  were 
characteristic  of  this  imaginative  and  enthusiastic  race  of 
Latin  America.  If  these  matters  were  more  in  evidence 
than  practical  results — as  is  often  characteristic  of  such 
assemblies — at  least  the  important  step  was  taken  of 
calling  together  their  neighbours  of  America,  discussing 
their  affairs,  and  emphasising  the  advisability  of  settling 
these,  when  differences  arose,  by  arbitration,  rather  than 
battle.  It  was  complained  that  Europe  took  little  note  of 
or  interest  in  this  conference,  and  among  the  delegates  of 
some  of  the  Latin  American  states — representatives  of  all 
of  which  were  present — Europe  was  blamed  for  frigidity 
to  thoughts  of  arbitration.  But  the  world  grows  wiser 
slowly,  and  Spanish-America  not  more  rapidly.  Important 
matters  which  occupied  the  attention  of  the  Congress 
were  the  questions  of  some  standardising  of  Spanish- 
American  Custom-house  methods,  and  the  great  subject 
of  the  Pan-American  railway.  This  vast  scheme  is 
designed  to  link  all  the  republics  of  North  and  South 
America  together.  But  it  may  well  be  asked  if  the  cost, 
estimated  at  40  million  pounds  sterling,  to  build  the  5,000 
miles  necessary  to  complete  the  chain  of  existing  lines, 
would  ever  pay  through  these  thinly  scattered  populations 
and  endless  mountain  regions.  It  is,  however,  an  allur- 
ing project,  and  calls  for  some  great  railway-building 
Bolivar  to  impulse  it.  It  is  but  a question  of  time. 

The  attitude  of  the  modern  Mexicans  towards  Spain — 
the  land  which  gave  them  birth — is  rather  a remarkable 
one.  As  a whole  they  cannot  be  said  to  be  pro-Spanish. 
The  Indian  blood  is  strong,  and  the  Indian  side  of  the 
Mexican  cherishes  still  what  is  almost  a resentment 
against  Spain  for  the  acts  of  the  Conquest.  Perhaps  the 
reader  of  this  book,  if  he  has  read  the  chapters  upon 
those  stirring  times,  will  not  need  to  ask  himself  why  I 


CONCLUSION 


3 55 


Spanish  America — Mexico  and  Peru — raises  no  statues 
to  Cortes,  nor  to  Pizarro.  But  there  is  another  side  to 
the  picture,  and  during  the  war  between  Spain  and 
the  United  States,  the  Spaniards  and  pro-Spaniards  of 
Mexico  raised  funds  to  purchase  a warship  for  Spain. 
But  neither  Mexico  nor  any  other  free  Republic  of 
Latin  America  raised  a hand  in  aid  of  the  unfortunate 
Cubans,  whose  life-blood  Spain,  with  all  her  old  methods, 
was  slowly  letting  before  their  eyes  ! 

Of  international  questions  in  the  American  hemisphere 
the  Monroe  Doctrine  takes  much  importance.  The 
origin  of  the  principle  contained  in  this  has  been  set 
forth  in  the  chapter  devoted  to  history,  and  its  British 
origin  recollected.  At  the  present  time  the  doctrine 
embodies,  to  the  Spanish-American  mind,  not  so  much 
the  antidote  to  possible  European  aggression  as  the 
hegemony  of  the  United  States  in  the  American  hemi- 
sphere. Of  recent  years  the  method  or  spirit  of  its 
enunciation  by  the  United  States  has  been  such  as  almost 
to  cause  offence  among  the  Spanish-American  Republics, 
an  effect  which, 'naturally,  it  was  not  intended  to  convey. 
But  the  Mexican  and  South  American  Republics  are  not 
slow  to  resent  any  idea  of  North  American  leading- 
strings.  They  consider  their  individuality  no  whit 
inferior  to  that  of  the  Anglo-American,  and  the  discussions 
which  have  been  carried  out  in  the  press  of  both  con- 
tinents show  how  little  the  two  races  of  the  Americas 
really  understand  each  other.  Nor  can  they  be  expected 
to  do  so,  possibly  for  centuries — such  centuries  as  passed 
before  a Franco-British  entente  became  possible  ! There 
is  far  more  affinity  of  social  interests  between  Spanish- 
America  and  Europe  than  between  the  United  States  and 
Spanish-America,  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the 
growth  of  a great  American  civilisation  distinct  from  that 
of  the  United  States  will  be  a valuable  element  in  the 
New  World.  The  influence  of  the  United  States  will 
always  be  offset  by  the  imported  European  culture  and 
solidity.  It  has  been  characteristic  of  all  Spanish-America 
to  emulate  and  to  exalt  the  United  States,  but  the  grave 


356 


MEXICO 


faults  apparent  in  the  character  of  the  Americans  in  their 
political  and  commercial  world  recently  have  caused 
much  loss  of  prestige.  The  student  of  American  life 
cannot  maintain  that  the  civilisation  of  the  United  States 
necessarily  tends  to  become  superior  to  that  of  the 
Spanish-American’s.  There  is,  of  course,  a vast 
superiority  in  manufacture,  means  of  communication, 
and  all  that  goes  to  make  up  the  modern  business  world — 
immeasurably  so.  But  of  man’s  humanity  to  man,  of 
social  refinement,  honesty  in  business,  cleanliness  in 
politics,  the  United  States  is  not  much  in  advance  of  its 
neighbours.  Nevertheless,  the  influence  of  the  United 
States  has  been,  and  will  be,  of  much  steadying  value  to 
Mexico,  and  it  remains  to  be  seen  if  Mexico  can  preserve 
her  individuality,  in  view  of  her  proximity  to  the  United 
States,  and  whether  she  can  absorb  the  excellent  cha- 
racteristics of  the  Americans,  without  acquiring  their 
defects.  Probably  she  can.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  a 
source  of  satisfaction  to  the  student  of  American  civilisa- 
tion to  observe  the  present  reciprocal  and  neighbourly 
attitude  of  the  United  States  and  Mexico  towards  each 
other.  There  they  stand,  shoulder  to  shoulder,  without 
quarrel  of  religion  or  race,  the  big  Republic  and  the 
developing  one,  both  under  the  forging  hand  of  time. 

For  herself  Mexico  may  be  looked  upon  as  a strong 
and  healthy  type  of  Spanish-American  civilisation,  whose 
growth  all  students  of  race-affairs  will  watch  with  interest. 
Endowed  with  a land  of  varied  and  plentiful  resource, 
chastened  by  history  and  tribulation,  and  with  resolute 
step  bent  forward,  Mexico  stands  as  a leader  of  her  race, 
and  a worthy  unit  in  the  development  of  the  great  New 
World.  Viva  Mexico ! 


INDEX 


Note. — For  other  place-names  not  given  in  index  sec  chapters  on  Natural 
Resources  and  Railways,  also  List  of  Illustrations. 


Acapulco,  seaport,  17,  105,  109,  in,  304,  343 
Acocotla,  341 
Africa,  258 
Agramonte,  105 

Agricultural  products,  list  of,  291 
Agriculture,  282-327 

Aguascalientes,  State  of,  210,  271,  303,  314 

Ahuitzuco,  280,  304 

Albuquerque,  105 

Alcohol,  238 

Aldama,  hi 

Alfred,  King,  24 

Allende,  III 

Alligators,  19, 152 

Alpacas,  152 

Alvarado  mine,  259 

Alvarado,  Pedro  de,  59,  82-97,  190,  347 
Amazon,  18,  290,  353 
Ameca,  147,  208 
American  Smelting  Co.,  336 
Americans  in  Mexico,  12,  14,  16,  116,  155,  181, 
201,  204,  205,  211,  249,  305,  323 
Ampudea,  General,  122 
Anahuac,  9,  15,  20,  136,  140,  185 
Andes,  18,  112,  136-146 
Anglo-American  Co.  of  Puebla,  336 
Anson,  Admiral,  105 
Anthracite,  280  (see  Coal) 

Apaches,  158,  210,  264 

Arbitration,  354 

Arch  in  prehistoric  Mexico,  34 

Architecture,  Mexican,  182,  185,  288 

Architecture,  prehistoric,  34-84,  326 

Area  of  Mexico,  135,  296-327 

Arequipa,  180,  210 

Argentina,  106, 167 

Arista,  General,  121 

Arizona,  34,  123, 149,  296 

Armadillos,  153 

Army,  202 

Art  Institution,  199 

Asia,  Asiatics,  35,  294,  325,  351  (see  also 
Japanese,  &c.) 

Asphalt,  322 
Astlan,  24 
Atahualpa,  101 
Atlantis,  lost  continent  of,  34 
Atoyac  Irrigation  Co.,  336 
Atoyac  river,  319 
Audiencias,  102,  107 
Austins,  the,  119 
Austria  (see  Maximilian) 

Avino  mine,  259,  266,  313 
Azoteas,  9,  182 

Aztecs,  2, 16,  20-97,  107,  143,  259, 182,  288,  316, 
341 

Babylon,  451 
Bahamas,  57 


! Balboa,  57 

Balsas  river,  144,  303,  304,  318,  349 
Bananas  or  platanos,  3, 1 1 (see  also  Agriculture) 
Bank,  335 

Barbarity  of  the  Spaniards,  72,  75,  81,  83,  100, 
no 

Barley,  289 

Barradas,  General,  118 
Bazaine,  General,  127 
Beans,  289,291 
Bears,  153 
Beaver,  153 
Behring  Straits,  36 
Belgians,  King  of  the,  127 
Belize  (see  British  Honduras) 

Bernal,  Diaz,  27,  28, 64,  74,  79,  92 
Biblical  analogies,  35,  223 
Birds,  3, 135,  153 
Bison,  153 

Boa-constrictors,  3,  152 
Boleo  copper  mines,  279 
Bolivar,  106 
Bolivia,  138,  152 

Bondholders,  British,  126,  131,  132 
Bravery  of  the  Mexicans,  12X,  122 
Bravo,  General,  115,  116 
Brazil,  284,  290 
Breweries,  311,  339 
Brigantines,  89-97 

Britain,  British,  6, 10, 11, 12,  104,  105,  106,  109, 
112,  116,  125,  126,  131,  135,  155,  201.  204,  249, 
265,  279,  296,  305,  313,  314,  317,  331,  336,  337, 
352 

British  capital  in  Mexico,  275,  277,  331,  336, 
337 

British  Honduras,  135,  325,  326,  327 
Buccaneers,  104,  105,  106 
Budget,  331 

Buena  Vista,  battle  of,  122 
Buenos  Ayres,  112,  184 
Bufa  mines,  277,  278 
Buildings,  prehistoric,  33-55,  304 
Bull-fights,  176,  193-196,  241-244 
Burgoa,  Francisco,  43 
Butterflies,  3 

Cactus,  3,  5, 15 
Calendar  stone,  23,  34,  53,  199 
California,  24,  34,  105,  107,  114,  123,  257,  283, 
343 

California,  Gulf  of,  145 

California,  Lower,  139,  143,  271,  277,  278,  279, 
280,  297 
Calleja,  hi 

Campeche,  State  of,  105,  135,  271,  324,  325 
Canada,  Canadians,  167,  178,  336 
Canal,  Mexican  drainage  (see  Drainage) 
Cananea  Copper  Co.,  278 
Cannibalism,  Aztec,  51,  94,  96 
357 


358 


INDEX 


Canning,  116 

Caracas,  112 

Carlos  III.  of  Spain,  269 

Carlos  V.  of  Spain,  64,  70,  73,  90,  96,  100 

Carlota,  Empress,  127-129 

Carmen  Island,  280 

Casa  Fuerte,  Viceroy,  106 

Casas  Grandes  river,  21 1 

Casones  river,  323 

Catalina,  Juarez,  59 

Catapult,  the,  94 

Cathedral  of  Mexico,  103,  191 

Cathedrals,  186,  209,  266,  303 

Catorce,  266, 315 

Cattle,  284,  292,  299,  309,  31 1 

Causeways,  Aztec,  26,  34,  77-97 

Cavendish,  104 

Caves,  225 

Cedar,  151  (see  Timber) 

Cement  work,  339 
Cempoallas,  33.  65 

Cenotes,  or  wells,  46,  326,  327  ( see  also  Coast 
Pacific  Zone) 

Centipedes,  153,  234 
Central  America,  106,  149 
Centralists,  116,  119 
Cereals,  283  ( see  Agriculture) 

Chaleo,  lake,  16,  146,  18S 

Chamber  of  Mines,  336 

Chapala,  lake,  25,  144,  145,  208,  301 

Chapultepec,  95,  121,  122,  186,  189,  200 

Cheops,  pyramid  of,  40 

Chewing  gum,  32 

Chiapas,  State  of,  142,  271,  284,  307 

Chicago,  182 

Chichemeca,  24 

Chichen-Ytza,  37,  45,  46 

Chicle,  151,  325 

Chihuahua,  10,  105,  in,  122,  138,  142,  210,  266, 
308 

Children  of  the  Sun,  24,  96 

Chile,  106,  112,  115,  167 

Chilli,  217,  291 

Chilpancingo,  nr,  147,  279 

China,  Chinese,  35,  114,  199,  325 

Chivela  Pass,  345 

Chocolate,  52,  283,  289,  301 

Cholula,  22,  23,  32,  37,  40,  70,  74,  320 

Church,  disestablishment  of  the,  118,  125 

Cigarettes,  218,  338 

Cities  of  the  plateau,  9 

Class  distinctions,  159,  160 

Clavijero,  27 

Climate,  1-19,  136,  146-153,  185,  296-327 
Clubs,  201 

Coahuila,  State  of,  122,  138,  271,  278,  280,  309, 

321 

Coal  (see  Mining) 

Coast  zone,  Atlantic,  3,  138,  146-153 
Coast  zone,  Pacific,  17-19,  138,  146-153,  287, 
295-307 

Coatzacoalcos,  323,  345 
Cocoanuts,  18,  283,  288,  291 
Cochineal,  151 

Coffee,  2S3,  284,  289,  291,  293 
Cofre  de  Perote,  69,  141,  319 
Cold  storage,  339 
Colhuas  and  Chalcas,  24 
Colima,  State  of,  271.  278,  302 
Colima  volcano,  1 7,  19,  208,  302 
Colleges,  197,  198 
Colombia,  iof 
Colonial  rule,  98-112 
Colonisation,  293 
Colorado  river,  298 
Colorado,  144 
Columbus,  57 


Conception  del  Oro,  314 

Conchas  river,  144,  211,  321 

Congress,  in 

Conquest  of  Mexico,  56-97 

Conservative  party,  124 

Consolidated  goldfields,  277 

Constitution,  Mexican,  158,  159 

Contreras,  battle  of,  122 

Copper  among  the  Aztecs,  50  (see  also  Mining) 

Cordova,  Hernandez  de,  57 

Cornish  miners,  260 

Cortes,  2,  17,  27,  32,  55-102,  103, 140,  188,  259 
266,  304,  318,  326,  341,  343,  355 
Cotton,  8,  138,  145,  167,  209,  231,  283-291,  285; 

337  (see  also  Agriculture) 

Couriers,  Aztec,  50 
Cougars,  4,  152 

Courtesy  of  the  Mexicans,  12,  160 
Council  of  the  Indies,  106 
Coyotes,  2,  8,  9,  152 
Cozumel,  island  of,  61,  326 
Creeds,  199 
Creoles,  154 

Creston-Colorado  mine,  277 
Cretaceous  period,  141,  142 
Crocoddes,  4,  19,  302 

Cross,  the,  in  Mexico,  15,  61,  79,  219-223,  228 
Cuautla,  hi 

Cuba,  57,  284,  326,  338,  335 

Cuernavaca,  17,  90,  304,  318,  343 

Cuitlahuac,  88 

Cuitzeo,  lake,  146 

Culiacan,  300 

Currency,  335 

Cuzco,  180 

Dam,  international,  293 
Deer,  153  (see  Game) 

Deluge,  the,  35 

Denudation  of  forests,  152,  285 
Deserts,  6,  122,  135,  137,  151,  309,  310 
Diaz,  Porfirio,  President,  126-133,  165,  193, 
306 

Dilligences,  235,  310 
Doctor  mine,  316 
Dos  Estrellas  mines,  276 
Drainage  of  the  Valley  of  Mexico,  17,  103,  104, 
133,  188,  203 
Drake,  104,  257 
Duelling,  248 

Durango,  10,  210,  258,  267,  271,  279,  312 
Dyewoods,  320-327 
Dynamite,  339 

Eagle  Pass,  310,  344 
Eagle,  serpent,  and  cactus,  21 
Earthquakes,  105 
Ecuador,  23 
Education,  160,  197-199 
Egypt,  29,  35,  45 
El  Ebano,  280 

Electric  power,  189,  203,  317,  336,  337 
Elevation  above  sea-level,  136,  139,  185,  296- 
327,  34' 

Eloquence,  Mexican,  162 

El  Oro,  gold-mining  district,  275,  317 

El  Paso,  309 

Empire  of  Mexico,  114 

Ensenada,  298 

Esperanza  mine,  276 

Estrada  Gutierrez,  119 

Ethnology,  154-158 

Expectoration,  habit  of,  249 

Expedition.  British-Spanish-French,  126 

Exports,  289,  332-34° 

Fauna,  149-153,  296-327 


INDEX 


359 


Feather-work,  Aztec,  50,  63 

Federalists,  116, 119 

Federation,  159 

Ferdinand  VII.  of  Spain,  III 

Fibrous  plants,  151,  289,  291 

Figueroa,  Viceroy,  106 

Financial  conditions,  328-349 

Fisheries,  296 

Flint  and  steel,  218 

Flint  implements,  225,  226 

Floating  gardens,  Aztec,  26,  91,  150,  189 

Flora,  149-153,  296-327 

Flour  mills,  339 

Flowers,  150 

Foreigners  in  Mexico  ( see  also  British 
America,  &c.),  12,  155,  201,  204,  249,  279, 
329 

Forests,  17,  151,  283,  284,  285,  292,  296-327 
Forey,  General,  127 

France,  French,  116,  126,  135,  155,  201,  279 
French  Revolution,  112 
Frijoles,  216,  289,  291 

Fruits,  tropical,  18,  100,  150,231,283-291,  296- 
327 

Fuerte  river,  299 

Game,  153,  299,  322  ( see  also  Sport) 
Geographical  conditions,  1 34-153,  294-327, 
35 1 

Geographical  Society,  199 
Geology,  47,  272 

Germany,  Germans,  135,  153,  201,  204 
Gold,  Aztec,  50,  53,  81,  260 
„ ( see  Mining) 

„ Mining  Companies,  275-278 
Gonzalez,  President,  131 
Government,  158-159 
Grape-vine,  109,  283 

Great  Plateau,  the,  2,  3-19,  136-153, 184,  231, 
308-320 

Grijalva,  58,  140 

„ river,  145,  307,  324 
Guadalajara,  10,  146,  208,  301,  337 
Guadalupe  Hidalgo,  treaty  of,  123 
„ Shrine  of,  187,  266 
Guanajuato,  13,  no,  in,  142,  258,  264,  268,  269, 
271,  315 

,,  Light  and  Power  Co.,  33  7 

Guatemala,  9,  31,  44,  100,  114,  135,  295,  307, 
324,  325 

Guatemoc,  27,  88-ior,  192 
Guaymas,  296,  297,  348 
Guayule,  290,  291,  314.  338 
Guerrero,  General,  113,  115 

„ State  of,  i8. 138,  271,  279,  303,  385 
Gulf  of  California,  296 

„ Mexico.  2,  58,  61,  135-139,  143 
,,  Stream,  326 
Guzman,  103 

Habana,  105 

Haciendas,  8,  17,  167,  287,  317 
Harbour  works,  Vera  Cruz,  133,  324 

„ „ Salina  Cruz,  306,  345,  346 

Hawkins,  104 

Henequen,  283,  289.  291-321,  325,  326 
Hercules  Cotton  Mill,  316 
Hermosillo,  297 

Hidalgo,  Patriot,  102,  108-m,  112 
„ State  of,  143,  271,  315 
Highwaymen,  117,  212 
Hindustan,  35 
Holy  Alliance,  115,  331 
Hondo  river,  327 
Honduras,  100,  135,  325,  327 
Horned  toads,  7 
Horsemen,  expert,  122,  167,  244 


Horses,  breeding,  292,  299 

„ first  appearance  of,  62,  71,  77,  94,  152, 
167 

Hospitality  of  Mexicans,  161 
Houses,  Mexican,  180,  197,  202,  287 
Houston,  120 
Huancavelica  mine,  260 
Huasteca  district,  315 
Huitzilopochtli,  war-god,  25 
Human  sacrifice,  23,  25,  40,  79,  93 
„ tallow,  90 
Humboldt,  210,  272,  134 
Hydrography,  137-1S3.  233,  296-326 

Ice  factories,  339 

Idols,  destruction  of,  67,  81,  83 

Iguanas,  18,  153 

Immigration,  294,  352 

Incas,  22,  23,  26,  29,  31,  49,  140,  261 

Independence,  106 

Indians,  154-158.  327 

Indiarubber  (see  Rubber) 

Industries,  335 
Inquisition,  103,  hi,  228 
Institutions,  National,  178-206 
Iron  (see  Mining) 

„ foundries,  338 

Irrigation,  4,  8,  52,  145,  149,  285-287,  289,  293, 
296-327 

Israel,  lost  ten  tribes  of,  35 
Iturbide,  107,  113-116.  264,  204 
Iturrigaray,  Viceroy,  109,  no 
Itzala,  gorge  of,  53,  143 
Ixtaccihuatl,  15,  17,  20,  74,  140,  317,  319 
Ixtie,  290,  291,  321 
Ixtlilxochitl,  29,  30,  89,  185 

JACALER,  25 
Jaguars,  4,  152 
Jalapa,  147 

Jalisco,  State  of,  144,  146,  261,  271,  278,  301 

Jamaica  negroes,  325 

Japanese,  36 

Jesuits,  105,  106,  192 

Jockey  Club,  201 

Joinville,  Prince  de,  119 

Jorullo,  volcano,  106 

Juanacatlan,  falls  of,  144,  208,  301,  337 

Juarez,  President,  118,  124-130,  155,  306 

Jurassic  period,  141 

KlNGSBOROUGH,  Lord,  35 
Koreans,  325 

La  Blanca  mine,  276 
Labour,  294 
Laguna  madre,  321 

„ cotton  region,  145,  285,  339 
Lakes,  145,  187 
Lampart,  105 
Land  frauds,  293 

Land  systems,  49,  108,  156,  157,  167,  293 

Languages,  24,  35,  170 

La  Paz,  298 

Laredo,  310,  322 

Lasso,  245,  248 

Latitude  and  longitude,  136,  185 
La  Tinaja,  339 
Lava, 143 

Lerdo,  President,  14,  129 
Lerdo  town,  149 
Lerma  river,  144,  317 
Lima,  178,  185 
Limantour,  Senor,  329 
Limestone,  mountain,  141 
; Linares,  Viceroy,  105 
Literary  Institutions,  199 


360 


INDEX 


Lizards,  7 
Llama,  152 

Loans,  foreign,  125,  331,  332 
Lopez,  128 
Lost  ten  tribes,  35 
Lotteries,  201 

Lower  California  ( see  California) 

Maguey,  8, 151, 167,  284,  287,  316 
Mahogany,  4,  151 
Maiz,  283,  289.  291 

Malaria,  4,  5,  64,  299,  302,  303,  305,  306,  324 

Malinche,  73,  140,  317,  319 

Maltrata,  340 

Mamey,  291 

Mammals,  152 

Mangroves,  4 

Manila,  105 

Manufacturing,  209,  310,  317,  323,  336-340,  353 

Manzanillo.  302,  343 

Mapimi,  bolson  of,  138,  144,  313 

Maravillas  Mine,  276 

Marina,  61,  63,  72 

Marques  de  Croix,  Viceroy,  106 

Marquez,  124 

Martens,  153 

Masonic  lodges,  117 

Matamoros,  280 

Maximilian,  Emperor,  126-130,  265,316 

Mayas.  22,  34,  45,  260,  326,  327 

Mazapil  Copper  Co.,  279,  314 

Mazatlan,  300 

Medicinal  plants,  151 

Medina.  Bartolome  de,  26 

Mejia,  General.  128,  129 

Mendoza,  Viceroy,  102 

Mercado,  263,  279 

Merida,  325.  326 

Mestizos,  107,  154 

Metate,  215 

“ Metalurgica  Mexicana,"  315,  336 
Mexico,  City  of,  16,  76-97,  184-206 
„ State  of,  271,  316 

„ Tramways  Co.,  204 

„ Valley  of,  3, 14-17,  20,  26,  76-97,  1S4- 
206 

Mexican  Light  and  Power  Co.,  203,  336 
Michoacan,  State  of,  102,  106,  146,  271,  278, 
303 

Mier,  112, 118 
Mina,  General,  in 
Minas,  Prietas,  277 
Mineral-bearing  zone,  270,  296-327 
Mining,  255-281,  296-327,  330,  336 
„ antimony.  271,  280 

„ Aztec,  52,  260,  280 

„ coal.  271,  280,303 

„ copper,  261,  271,  278 

„ gold,  260,  262,  271,  275-278 
„ history  of,  6,  142,  255-270, 

„ iron,  261,  263,  271,  279 

„ lead,  261,  271,  280 

„ opals,  270 

„ petroleum,  271,  280,  322 

,,  placer,  261 

„ prehistoric,  260 

„ properties,  281 

„ quicksilver,  260,  271 

„ salt,  271 

„ School,  200.  269 

„ silver,  6,  142,  260,  262,  264,  271-275 

„ Spanish,  262 

„ tin,  53,  261,  271,  280 

„ titles,  281 

„ tunnels,  262 

„ zinc,  271 

Miramon,  General,  128 


Miramon,  President,  126 
Mitla,  ruins  of,  42 
Molina  del  Rey,  122 
Monastic  orders,  192 
Mongolians,  35  (see  also  Chinese,  &c.) 
Monkeys,  4,  152 
Monoliths,  38,  42 
Monoloa  mine,  268 
Monopolies,  Spanish,  109 
Monroe  Doctrine,  116,  355 
Monte  Alban,  ruins  of,  37,  42 
Monte  de  las  Cruces,  no 
Monterrey,  city  of,  122, 148.  149,  279,  311 
Montezuma,  24,27-84,  261,  187,  343 
„ Mine,  278 
Morelia,  no,  303 
Morelos,  the  priest,  in,  112 
„ State  of,  287,  318 
Morgan,  105 
Mormons,  347 

Mule-back  journeying,  14  ( see  “ Life  and 
Travel ") 

Munoz,  103 
Murillo.  191 
Music,  10.  n,  183 
Myrtles,  19 

Nahuas,  24 

Napoleon,  no,  112,  126 

Narvaez,  82 

National  Anthem.  172 

National  Meat  Packing  Co.,  339 

Navigable  rivers,  145,  304,  307,  323,  328,  347 

Navy,  202 

Nazas,  280 

Nazas  river,  138,  145,  148,  149,  233,  285,  286, 
288,  313 

Nevado  de  Toluca,  141,  317 
New  Mexico,  34,  105,  114 
New  York,  147, 167 
Nezahualcoyotl,  24,  28-31 
Nicaragua,  31 
Nile,  285 

Noche  Triste,  32, 84 

Nochistongo,  103 

Nogales,  297 

Nopales,  21,  151 

Nuevo  Leon,  State  of,  271,  310 

OAK,  5,  17, 151,  152  (see  Forests,  Timber) 
Oaxaca,  40-42,  in,  124,  128, 132,  142,  271,  284, 
305 

Obregon,  Count,  263 

Obsidian,  53,  143 

Ocampo,  statesman,  125 

Oceolot,  152 

O'Donoju,  Viceroy,  114 

Olid  Cristoval,  61,  100 

Olmedo  priest,  65,  73 

Olives,  283 

Oranges,  3,  n 

Orchids,  5 

Orchillas,  298 

Orgraphy,  139-143 

Orientation  of  pyramids,  38,  42 

Origin  of  Mexican  people,  35 

Orizaba.  2.  57,  hi,  140,  319 

Oroya  Railway,  341 

Otomies.  24,  32 

Otter,  153 

Otumba,  32,  87,  341 

Pachuca.  13, 142,  259,  265,  316 
Padilla,  Viceroy,  106 
Palenque,  37,  44,  260,  307 
Palmarejo  mines,  277 
Palms,  4 


INDEX 


361 


Palo  alto,  battle  of,  121 
Panama,  57,  135,  345,  348,  351 
Pan-American  Congress,  354 
..  >•  Railway,  348, 354 

Panuco  river,  17,  145,  189,  316,  321 
Papaloapam  river,  145,  323 
Papantla,  40 
Paper,  52,  338 
Paredes,  122 

Parral,  mining  district,  276 

Parras,  145,  286,  310 

Partridges,  153 

Pasco  de  la  Reforma,  192 

Passes,  mountain,  137 

Patio  process,  260,  274 

Patzcuaro  lake,  25  146 

Pawnshop,  national,  200 

Peaks,  principal,  140 

Pearl,  fisheries,  296,  298 

Pearson  & Sons,  Ltd.,  188,  336 

Pecos  river,  144 

Peccaries,  153 

Penitentiaries,  200 

Penolies  mines,  276,  313 

Peones,  7,  12,  156, 171,  213-217,  237,  294 

Perpetual  snow,  2,  6,  15,  139 

Perpetual  spring,  147 

Peru,  17,  18,  29,  31,  35,  40,  49,  53,  101,  104,  106, 
112,  115,  138,  140,  141,  146,  152,  167,  260,  290, 
34L  3S5 
Petroleum.  280 
Philippine  Islands,  103,  276 
Philip  II.  of  Spain,  103,  104,  191 
Philip  IV.  of  Spain,  104 
Pibroch  of  Donnel  Dhu,  173 
Picture-writing,  23,  62 
“ Pie-war,”  the,  119 

Pine,  5,  17, 151,  152  ( see  Forests  and  Timber) 
Pinto  disease,  304 
Pizarro,  101,  102,  35s 
Plaza,  9,  11  (see  Cities) 

Police,  203 

Political  executions,  132 
Ponce  de  Leon,  101 

Popocatepetl,  15,  17,  20, 105,  140,  185,  317,  319 
Population  (see  also  the  various  States),  135, 

154-158.  296-327 

Portales,  180 

Potatoes,  217,  284-291 

Pottery,  53,  241 

Priests,  235-237 

Printing,  first,  102 

Progreso,  seaport,  325,  326 

Providence  mines,  278 

Puebla,  33,  122,  126,  128,  209,  271,  278,  319 

Puebla  Tramway  Co.,  336 

Pulque,  9,  178,  217,  232,  284,  290,  316 

Puma,  152 

Pyramids,  2,  15,  20,  25, 33,  34,  38-35.  76-97.  229 

Quail,  153 
Quemada,  34 

Bueretaro,  no,  128,  271,  278,  315,  316 
uetzalcoatl,  23,  40,  54,  72 
Quicksilver,  260,  280,  304,  314 
Quintana  Roo,  325,  327 
Quiroga,  Bishop,  102 
Quixotism,  167 

Race-suicide,  352 

Railways,  generally,  9,  13,  14,  17,  69,  136,  208 
230,  296-327,  330-349 

„ Mexican  Vera  Cruz,  4,  130,  320,  324, 
34°.  342 

„ „ Central,  131,  300,  302,  304, 

309,  311,  314,319.  330,  342 
„ „ Southern,  320, 346 


Railways,  Mexican  National,  132,  310,  314,  322, 
330,  343 

„ Chihuahua  and  Pacific,  348 

„ Hidalgo  and  North-Eastern,  344 

„ International,  310,  311,  344 

„ Interoceanic,  319 

„ Kansas  City,  Mexico  and  Orient,  347 
„ Monterrey  and  Gulf,  311 

„ Pan-American,  348 

„ Rio  Grande  and  Pacific,  347 

„ Sonora,  297,  348 

„ Tehuantepec,  133,  306,  312,  323,  345 
„ Vera  Cruz  and  Pacific,  346 

„ Vera  Cruz  (Mexico),  347 

Rainfall,  137-149,  285,  296-327 
Rattlesnakes,  153 
Rayas  mine,  269 
Read,  Campbell  & Co.,  1S8 
Real  del  Monte,  265,  276,  3/6 
Reform  Laws,  118,  125,  127,  159 
Religion,  Aztec  and  prehistoric,  15,  25,  30,  40, 
79,  81,  227 

Religion,  Roman  Catholic,  6,  13,  IS,  65,  80,  81, 
i°4,  125,  159,  165,  175,  266-269,  352,  179.  199. 
227 

Rents,  202 

Repudiation  of  debts,  125 
Restrictive  policy,  329 
Revolutions,  1 17-133 

Rio  Grande,  n,  34,  136,  143,  144,  21 1,  308,  320 
Roads,  Aztec  and  Inca,  50 
Rocky  Mountains,  137 

Rubber,  rubber  trees,  3,  4,  151,  283,  290,  294, 
301,  303,  304,  307,  314,  323,  324,  328 
Rurales,  202,  212 
Russia,  114 

Salina  Cruz  seaport,  306,  34s 

Salt,  280 

Saltillo,  310 

San  Angel,  187,  197 

San  Bias  seaport,  144,  300,  301 

Sandoval,  Gonzalo  de,  61,  83,  91 

San  Francisco,  182 

San  Geronimo,  280 

San  Juan  Bautista  City,  325 

San  Juan  river,  322 

San  Luis  Potosi,  210,  258,  271 

San  Luis  Potosi,  State  of,  314 

San  Rafael  mines,  278 

Santa  Anna,  115-123 

Santa  Eulala  mine,  266,  309 

Santa  Gertrudis  Jute  Mills,  336 

Santiago  City,  184 

Santiago  river,  301 

Sardaneta,  269 

Scenery,  143,  2-19,  301,  305-327,  34°~349 
Scientific  character,  166 
„ institutions,  199 
Scorpions,  153,  234 
Scott,  General  Winifield,  122 
Sculpture,  Aztec,  53 
Sea-bathing,  322 
Seals,  153 
Serpents,  4,  152 
Shipbuilding,  325 
Ships,  destruction  of,  68 
Sierra  Madre,  3-19,  136-133,  296-327 
Silver  mining  ( see  Mining) 

Sinaloa,  State  of,  24,  271,  298 
Sisal  hemp  ( see  Henequen) 

Sisal  seaport,  326 
Skunk,  153 
Slavery,  49,  102,  119 

Smelting,  279,  296,  311,  314,  315,  316  (see  also 
Mining) 

Snow,  2,  69,  139,  285,  317,  319 


362 


INDEX 


Snow-cap  (see  Snow) 

Soap  works,  339 
Social  conditions,  159-176 
Soil,  138,  149,  285,  287 
Sonora,  State  of,  142,  145,  264,  271 
Soto,  La  Marina,  280,  321 
South  America  (see  also  Andes,  Peru,  &c.), 
149.  152 

Spanish  American  civilisation,  10,  11-99 

Spanish  characteristics,  99,  159 

Spanish  population,  155 

Sport,  168,  153,  246,  251,  253 

Steel  works,  31 1 

Stock-raising  (see  Cattle) 

Subterraneous  altars,  6,  268 
Sugar-cane  sugar,  100,  167,  283,  287,  289,  293, 
301 

Sulphur,  140 
Sun-God,  15 
Sunsets,  7 

Superstition,  223-227 
Switzerland,  32 

Tabasco,  State  of,  61,  271,  284,  290,  324 
Tacubaya,  124,  140,  187,  197 
Tamaulipas,  State  of,  112,  115,  138,  271,  278, 
280 

Tamesi  river,  321 

Tampico,  5,  145,  280,  315,  321,  322 

Tancitaro,  peak,  141 

Tapir,  4,  153 

Tarahumara  peak,  312 

Tarantulas,  153 

Tarpon  fishing,  322 

Taxco,  266,  304 

Taylor,  General  Zachary,  121 

Tecolotes,  9 

Tehuacan,  346 

Tehuantepec  (see  also  Railways),  135,  144,  149, 
240,  305 

Temperature  (see  Climate) 

Tenochtitlan,  21-91,  37,  186 
Teocallis  (see  Pyramids) 

Teotihuacan,  15,  21,  23,  37-40,  48,  341 

Tepanecas,  24,  28 

Tepic,  19,  208,  271,  284,  300 

Tequezquitengo,  318 

Terminos  Lagoon,  326 

Terreros,  269 

Tertiary  period,,  3,  140,  142 
Tetecala,  318 

Texas,  107,  114,  119-123,  138,  143,  308-310 

Texcoco,  16,  20,  24,  37,  187,  317 

Texcotzinco,  24,  29 

Textile  industry,  31 1,  337 

Teyra,  peak,  312 

Tierra  caliente,  3-5,  17,  146,  151 

Tierra  fria,  5,  146 

Tierra  templada,  5,  146 

Timber,  151,  283-285,  262,  296-327 

Tin,  53  (see  Mining) 

Tinctorial  plants,  151 
Titicaca  lake,  17,  26,  138,  146 
Titles,  love  of,  168,  169 
Tlacoleros,  285 
Tlahincas,  24 
Tlahualilo,  286 
Tlalpam,  187, 197 
Tlapujahua,  278 
Tlascalans,  24,  32,  69-97,  318 
Tlaxcala,  State  of,  141,  316,  317 
Tobacco,  284,  301,  338 

Toltecs,  15,  20-24,  33.  37-4°.  48,  261,  208,  227, 
341 

Toluca,  144,  317 


Tonala,  seaport,  307 
Tonatinah,  sun-god,  15,  39,  229 
Tonto  river,  322 

Topography,  1-19,  136-153,  296-327 

Topolobampo,  seaport,  348 

Torreon,  148,  310 

Tortillias,  215,  289 

Tramways,  203 

Treasure  buried,  225,  224 

Tribes  of  Mexico,  24,  33 

Trinidad  mine,  277,  278 

Tula,  22,  25,  261 

Tunas,  151,  291 

Turkeys,  251 

Turtles,  152 

Tuxpam  river,  323,  343 

Tuxtla  Gutierrez,  307 

Ulua,  San  Juan  de,  2,  117 
Unknown  God,  the,  29,  77,  228 
United  States,  10,  11,  109,  112,  116,  119,  135, 
160,  278,  288,  3 11,  351-356  (see  also  American) 
Usumacinta  river,  145,  307,  324 
Uxmal,  37,  45 

Vaqueros,  8 
Valenciana  mine,  264,  267 
Valparaiso,  184 

Velasquez,  governor,  57,  80, 103 
Valasquez,  painter,  191 
Vegetation,  148 
Venegas,  viceroy,  no 
Venezuela,  115 

Vera  Cruz,  2,  5,  56,  103,  119,  122,  135,  145,  271, 
284,  285,  290,  322,  346 
Vera  Cruz  Light  and  Power  Co.,  336 
Viceroys,  the,  98-112 
Victoria,  city,  322 
Victoria,  President,  116 
Viga  Canal,  189 

Volcanoes,  15,  137,  139,  140,  142,  185 

War,  American-Mexican,  116, 1 19-124,  201 
War,  English-Spanish,  105-106 
War,  French-Mexican,  119 
Warlike  spirit,  172 
War,  Spanish-Mexican,  113,  118 
Water-parting,  17,  70,  305,  307,  310,  319,  345 
Water-power,  143,  145,  189,  317,  323,  336,  337 
Water-supply,  203,  231,  285,  292,  296-327  ( see 
also  Irrigation) 

Wellington,  in 
Whales,  153 

Wheat,  208,  283,  289,  291 
White  man  in  the  tropics,  352 
Wild-cats,  152 
Wolves,  152 

Women  of  Mexico,  n,  172,  173,  174,  175,  176, 
239,  240 

Xochimilco,  24, 188,  189 

Yankees,  12  i,  250 
Yaqui  river,  145,  296 
Yaqui  River  Smelting  Co.,  279 
Yellow  fever,  2,  5,  306,  324 
Yucatan,  5,  22,  45,  57,  61,  114,  141,  143,  144, 
MS.  29°.  325,  326.  327 

Zacatecas,  13,  34,  210,  258,  259,  271,  278,  279, 

313 

Zacatula,  145 
Zapotecas  Indians,  124 
Zopilotes,  8,  324 
Zumarraga,  Archbishop,  29,  52 


UNWIN  BROTHERS,  LIMITED,  THE  GRESHAM  PRESS,  WOKING  AND  LONDON. 


(THE  SOUTH  AMERICAN  SERIES,  Vol.  II.) 

PERU 

Its  Former  and  Present  Civilization,  History  and  Political 
Conditions,  Topography  and  Natural  Resources, 
Commerce  and  General  Development. 

By  C.  REGINALD  ENOCK,  F.R.G.S.,  Author  of  “ The  Andes 
and  the  Amazon.” 

With  an  Introduction  by  Martin  Hume,  a Map,  and  Numerous 
Illustrations.  Demy  8vo,  cloth. 


OPINIONS  OF  THE  PRESS 

“ An  important  work.  . . . The  writer  possesses  a quick  eye  and  a 
keen  intelligence  ; is  many-sided  in  his  interests,  and  on  certain  subjects 
speaks  as  an  expert.  The  volume  deals  fully  with  the  development  of  the 
country,  and  is  written  in  the  same  facile  and  graphic  style  as  before. 
Illustrated  by  a large  number  of  excellent  photographs.” — The  Times. 

“ Mr.  C.  Reginald  Enock’s  elaborate  and  well-studied  descriptive 
treatise  would  be  sure  of  a welcome  even  were  it  less  well  done  than 
it  is.  The  work  unites  in  the  happiest  way  the  best  qualities  of  an  official 
manual  and  a personal  description.  Plentifully  illustrated,  well  informed, 
and  written  throughout  in  an  agreeable  style,  the  book  will  prove 
interesting  reading.” — Scotsman. 

“ Mr.  Enock’s  book  contains  much  material  necessary  for  our  en- 
lightenment of  Peru.  In  every  part  of  his  book  one  finds  the  evidences 
of  independent  personal  observation  directed  by  a mind  trained  for  such 
work.  The  book  may  be  commended  to  all  students,  not  only  of  the 
West,  but  of  the  East.” — Morning  Post. 

“The  author  treats  of  Peru  as  a political  and  commercial  entity,  and  we 
find  it  even  more  interesting  than  his  previous  work.” — The  Economist. 

“ An  able  and  exhaustive  study  of  Peru  ; its  past,  its  present,  and  in- 
teresting matter  upon  which  to  estimate  its  future.  As  one  reads  through 
page  after  page  of  clear,  concise,  graphic  description,  one  feels  that  one 
has  actually  travelled  with  Mr.  Enock.  All  will  find  in  this  charming 
volume  matter  of  interest.” — New  York  Herald. 

“ The  book  is  a valuable  contribution  to  the  literature  of  Peru,  and  a 
trustworthy  summary  of  our  knowledge  of  the  country.  The  illustrations 
are  excellent,  and  give  an  admirable  idea  of  the  scenery.” — Manchester 
Guardian. 

“Mr.  Enock’s  admirable  book  will  certainly  direct  attention  to  the 
country.  No  one  can  read  this  able  and  delightful  volume  without 
acquiring  much  information  and  great  interest  in  a country  of  which  so 
little  is  known.” — Aberdeen  Free  Press. 

“ We  have  read  the  present  book  from  cover  to  cover,  and  it  seems  to 
tell  just  what  is  wanted  about  one  of  the  most  interesting  countries  in  the 
world.  Mr.  Enock’s  ways  as  a traveller  commend  him  to  us.” — Country 
Gentleman. 


(THE  SOUTH  AMERICAN  SERIES,  Vol.  II.) 

PERU 

Its  Former  and  Present  Civilization,  History  and  Political 
Conditions,  Topography  and  Natural  Resources, 
Commerce  and  General  Development. 

By  C.  REGINALD  ENOCK,  F.R.G.S.,  Author  of  “The  Andes 
and  the  Amazon.” 

With  an  Introduction  by  Martin  Hume,  a Map,  and  Numerous 
Illustrations.  Demy  8vo,  cloth. 


OPINIONS  OF  THE  PRESS. 

Mr.  Enoch’s  work  is  of  the  highest  value  as  a careful  account  of  the 
existing  conditions  of  Peru.  The  book  is  as  interesting  as  it  is  in- 
structive.”— Truth. 

“ A magnificent  collection  of  information  on  this  interesting  country. 
The  author’s  vivid  and  eloquent  description  invests  it  for  us  with  some  of 
the  glamour  it  possessed  for  the  Conquistadores  of  the  sixteenth  century. 
And  on  closing  the  book  the  reader  feels  tempted  to  set  out  at  once  for 
Peru.” — Yorkshire  Observer. 

“ A glowing  and  detailed  account,  with  a mass  of  information  which 
will  prove  of  immense  service  alike  to  students,  travellers,  and  traders.” — 
Daily  Graphic. 

“ Mr.  Enoch’s  former  work  was  so  good  that  any  new  effort  of  his  was 
bound  to  attract  notice.  In  the  present  volume  we  find  all  his  best 
qualities — picturesqueness,  literary  skill,  a dexterous  combination  of  fact 
and  suggestiveness,  a succinct  historical  survey,  and  a clearly-drawn 
picture  of  existing  social  conditions — a book  of  unusual  excellence.” — 
Birmingham  Post. 

“ The  author  is  already  favourably  known,  and  he  writes  with  the  same 
thoroughness  about  Peru.  One  rises  from  the  perusal  of  so  lucid  and 
exhaustive  a survey  with  a vivid  impression.  Many  fine  illustrations 
heighten  the  appeal  of  this  thoroughly  practical  and  welcome  volume.” — 
Standard. 

“Mr.  Enoch  has  turned  out  an  admirable  addition  to  ‘The  South 
American  Series.’  Many  will  welcome  his  admirable  resume  of  the  story 
of  the  Inca  Empire  and  the  history  of  the  Spanish  Conquest  and 
occupation  of  this  wonderful  country.” — Glasgow  Herald. 


BY  THE  SAME  AUTHOR  ./ 

Third  Impression 

THE  ANDES  AND  THE  AMAZON 

Life  and  Travel  in  Peru 


With  a Map  and  Numerous  Illustrations.  Medium  8vo,  cloth. 


. Date  Due 

?£  j* 

a n ) C\ 

> 

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